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      September-6, 1851. The Northern Sta Ft, ...

      September-6 , 1851 . THE NORTHERN STA ft , 3

      ^Oms

      ^ oms

      Education. (From Poems, By Fsnz And Liol...

      EDUCATION . ( From Poems , by Fsnz and Lioleit . ) Men of thought , with iron nerve . Fronting error , take your stand ;' Never from your purpose swerve , Till it cease from out the land : long and dread the strife may be , — "Se yet stall have tbe mastery !; "Wisdom ' s garb tboupb it assume , Tear tbe flimsy veil aside ; let the li"bt of Truth illume

      Falsehood ' s kingdom far and wide Though around you darkness clings , The dawn is nigh of better things . Ignorance—the sleep of mind—Holds it in a fatal trance , To you bright creation Wind Waiting now its op ' ningglance : Be it yours the spell to break , The souls of men shall then awake . When before that mighty host Error ' s dark dominion falls , Bis were then a feeble boast ,

      Who the body disenthralls ; * The tyrant ' s chain he breaks—buf ye Boldly bid the soul be free !

      Umim

      umim

      The Application Of Associative Princi P ...

      The Application of Associative Princi p les and the Metliods to Agriculture . A Lecture by the Rev . C- KnfGSLEr . London : Bezer , 183 , Fleet-street . If books were to be valued in proportion to their aize , Mr . Kingsley ' fl ' Lecture would not be very higMy estimated . If tbey are to be prized in proportion to the value and importance of their contents , it is impossible to appreciate it too highl y . "We have , indeed , never before met with a work which , in the compass of a few pages , treats so lucidly , practically , and forcibly of a great number of questions of the most vital importance to Society . Tho style of the author of ' Alton

      Locke' is vigorous , simple , and straig htforward . There is a thought or a fact in every sentence . "With him words are things ; and at a moment when one old system of agriculture is evidently unable to maintain its ground , before the assaults of a Free Trade policy , the top ic treated of by Mr . Kingsley possesses claims of the strongest character upon the attention of all classes of the community . lVhile the lecturer stands up strictly for the institution of landlordism , he by no means spares the landlords for their abuse of the powers entrusted to them . What the effect of this has been on the country let Mr . Kingslev tell ns , in his own vigorous and powerful style : —

      I have to bring this heavy charge against the great majority of landlords , that they have for the last fifty years been behaving towards their estates and those on them more and more as if they bad not a duty to perform to them , and to the nation by whose permission tbey hold them , but merely a pecuniary interest in them , as if , to use Mr . Garlyle ' s phrase , " Cash payment was the only bond between man and man , * ' and the whole object of their own landlord-existence was to get , out of farmers' competition , the maximum of rent , at the minimum of expense and trouble . Hence they hare been breaking down , or allowing to be broken down , one by one all tho old elements of Socialism , the old ties and customs which they were most

      bound to keep up , and which they must nowrestore in some improved and more organised shapes , or vanish . There is hardly a questionable opinion or practice for which the earliest political economists are blamed , which has not openly manifested itself among landlords and farmers during the last fifty years , in blundering and barbaric forms , without the excuse , which the political economist has a right to plead , that they were obeying the laws of an accredited science . If political economists have made an idol of profits , and set them up as the object of agriculture , instead of asserting the maximum of production to be itself an absolute good , who iiave fallen more deeply into that error than

      the protectionist landlords ? If political economists hare preached against over population , farmersacd landlords have been acting on their theory for many a year . They have prevented the population of their parishes from increasing . They have replaced men ; by sheep over large districts of Scotland . They have let cottages—I speak of a frightfully -common case—ran to rain , breeding disease and misery in the inmates during the process of their decay , with the avowed intention of not replacing them when they fell down . They have driven away not only their surplus hands , but even , in too many cases , those which they already possessed , to increase the crowded filth and misery of the great cities , and , as in the case of the Dorsetshire

      labourers , to walk out from the town four or five miles daily to their work , and as many back . The custom of hereditary leases has _ vanished , on ninetynine estates out of a hundred ^ Tbe custom of any lease at all has grown but too rare . The farmer has no longer a family interest and affection towards his land and his labourers , any more than he has towards his landlord . Por the landlord lowers himself irremediably in the farmer ' s eyes in the very process of letting , when he hands over his farm to the man who will promise him most , and demand of him least , while he is utterly careless as to tbe farmer ' s character , morals , skill—even , strange blindness of eovetousness!—as to tbe amount of capital bo can put into theland . Hence ,

      the actual average capital per acre , invested by farmers throughout England , is less than half the sum without which the Scotch farmer considers profitable or productive ngricnltnre impossible . Hence tbe farmer is beaten down , to promise a rent which it is uncertain whether he can pay , has to speculate on the chances of an arbitrary remission of part of it on his rent day ; on his landlord ' s alms , in short ; and in the meantime , to make all snre , grinds the labourer as the landlord has ground him . 2 nd I am sorry to say , that the rank and education ef landlords , in a fearfully large number of instances , is no guarantee for their honesty . What may be tbe state of things in the more remote and patriarchial districts of the north and west of

      England , I cannot say ; but I assert that throughout the midland , southern , and eastern counties there is not a market town in which you may not hear stories by the half-dozen , of farmers half ruined by being cajoled into taking / arms at high rents , on the promise of improvements at the landlord ' s expense —as a wealthy squire promised a friend of minewhich promise was utterly broken ; of leases promised , and then left unsig ' ned , until on tbe tenant ' s pressing for the signature , he has been turned out of his farm—as a respectable baronet turned out anoiber friend of mine—and the improvements which he had made appropriated by the landlord ; Of whole estates lying half-cultivated at rack-rents , the farmers not daring to improve , leat the rents

      should be raised upon them ; of other farms whose rental is as high now , with wheat £ 10 a load , as it was when wheat was £ 40 , though no corresponding permanent improvements have been made by the landlord in the meantime ; of estates in one county on which the landlord resides , bedizened out with model cottages , and school ? , and churches , like that of one of the greatest and most respectable dukes in England , to theodmirationof an unreflecting public , while the same man ' s property at the other end of England is lhe scene of extortion , pauperism , fever , and decay , delivered over to tbe tender mercies of an agent , some parasite farmer or attorney of the neighbourhood , Jchosen because he is a good man of business—in plain English , mere

      cunning , greedy , and hard-hearted than the average ; of appeals trora cheated fanners ( labourers on such estates have given up long ago appealing to any one but God)—or from clergymen pleading for the health , the decency , the morals , the education , the lives of their wretched flocks , answered by a cold— "I never interfere in such matters ; Heave theai to my agent . '' I assert that I know parish after parish , in which the whole education , almsgiving , and all appliances of mercy and civilisation , depend utterly on the scanty purse of the clergyman , who has to support , at an expense sometimes of one-third of his scanty income , necessary good Trorks to which the Jandford , drawing thousands a . year from the same parish , often does not contribute a five pound note , sometimes not a shilling .

      I assert that I , a young man , in my own short and limited experience , have seen every one of these iniquities again and again . That I do not know , even slightly , a- neighbourhood in which one or more cases of these evils do not exist . I le : » ve you to judge of the whole amount of them throug hout the kingdom . The effects of such a svstem on the farmer may i ? e easily conceived . He has become a nomad , renting often in ihe course of his life , four or five farms in succession , and continually shifting in the

      hope of better terras for himself and worse for bis landlord . He is in fact , a mere wandering speculator ia the L-one and muscle of labourers iu whom he fcasyeaily ic-ssand less interest , to whom ha is , in the Eastern Counties , where the sweating system , in the form of gang-work , is fast spreading under most brutal shapes , often personally unknown . The fermer hates the landlord ; the labourer hates the farmer . Everywhere is competition , and , therefore , everywhere distrust , meanness , disunion , discontent . And does this unrestrained

      The Application Of Associative Princi P ...

      competitive laisses' faire promote English Agricul " ture ? Not a whit of it . English soil is almost tbe worst-tilled of any enclosed soil in Europe . The farm-buildings , on estate after estate , are in a state utterly disgraceful—such as renders it impossible to save manure , or farm high in any way . The farmers dare not invest capital in land of which they have no permanent tenure . Hot a district which does not give ocular demonstration of the general under-farming , by the presence of some one farm which is . growing , even on the present clumsy system , half as much again as those round it . And all agricultural improvements , with- a very few exceptions , are originated either by free- , holders , or by gentlemen farming for their

      amusement , proving that something more than competition is required to give the proper spur to production . And , in the meantime , under the influence oi the same selfish trade spirit , the landlords have gone on , for the last fifty years , buying up every rood of land , till they have all but exterminated the old yeomanry , and there are now less than hali the number of freeholders in England than there were fifty years ago . A frightful fact , when we recollect that all great political thinkers , from Lord Bacon downward , have said that one of the most important elements of a country ' s strength was , that the greatest possible number of citizens should have a permanent interest in the land . Wealth , says Lord Bacon , is like muck , not good unless it

      uo spread . Above all things , says he again , good policy is to be used that the treasures and monies in estate be not gathered into few hands . Por , otherwise , a state may have a great stock , yet starve . And again , as Cromwell told the House of Commons , if there be any one that makes many poor to make a few rich , that suits not a Commonwealth . Hear , again , Burke , on the great landowners , " Tbeir estates , instead of being their security , will become tho very causes of their danger ; they will excite rapacity—tbey will be looked to as a prey . " Oh , do not think that it requires what , we , in our willing atheism , call a miracle , an inter '

      ference of God , to fulfil the prophecy of the old Hebrew Seer , Woe unto them that join house to house , that lay field to field , till there be no place Oh , it is » base hypocrisy , which pretends that because those words are inspired they have nothing to do with us , that they refer to some peculiar and marvellous system now past ! Becanse they are inspired , they are eternal ; true now , and true for ever . Because they are inspired they are tbe expression of an orderly natural law of human society , which will assert its truth , and avenge itself , without miracle or portent , but fearfully enough , in England here , as surely as it did in Jud & a of old .

      Here is a nut for the political economists to crack . Tbe essential falsehood and injustice of their favourite dogma about the price of labour being regulated by supply and demand , was never more effectively dealt with : — Let us look at this whole question from the side of simple justice . We shall all agree , I hope , that whatever is the object of agricultural production , the welfare of those who produce must be looked to also . That is but just . Else , why should we not grow corn on the sweating system ? Some may answer—well , why not , if tbe agricultural labour market is over-stocked ? I answer that on that principle you have a right to cultivate your land by slaves . It no moral consideration is to determine

      the condition of your free labourers , why should it determine their being free at all ? If you acknowledge one moral ground , you must acknowledge all . If you say a farmer has a right , by setting his labourers to compete against each other for work , and paying always the lowest price thej will take , to make their numbers , and not any sense of justice , the criterion of their wages , where is the system to stop ? He has a perfect right to go on till he has pauperised them all ; and then he has a perfect right , according to political economy , falsely so called , to hire gangs of paupers , i . e . of slaves , from the workhouse , and set them competing against the free labourers outside , as the slop-sellers send part of their work to the union-houses in London , and

      by that means beat down their free labourers to the union prices . And why should he stop there ? Why should not the agricultural labourers be as the labourers of other countries hare been before now , absolutely and formally enslaved ? bought and sold as slaves , and made to work whether they like or not ? Because they are free ? Let us clear our minds of cant , gentlemen and ladies . "What is the meaning of this word free ? How do you prove that a man ought to be free ? Because it is just ? Justice has nothing to do with economic considerations , with the science of profits . If they are the great object of social science ; if the reproduction of capital is tbe one great means of a nation ' s wealth , then 1 do not see why these sentimental notions

      about justice and abstract rights of freedom are thus to interfere with the national good . If it is profitable and right to make clothes by sweating , it is profitable and right to cultivate land by paupers , and still more profitable and right to cultivate it by slaves . I really do not see any reason upon economic grounds why yon should care so much for the condition of those slaves , why you should not breed them for your own use as you do cattle and horses , and breed no more of them than you want—why you should not ascertain carefully the age at which their powers of work begin to decline , and then , instead of unprofitauly supporting them in alms-houses and onions , just make away with them painlessly by a few drops of strychnine , melt them down in

      tbe sulphuric acid tank , and drill them with your root-crops . I will engage that any farmer or nation that will hare courage logically and consistently to carry out in that way the economy of labour and the reproduction of capital , will farm , in spite of all free trade whatsoever , at a splendid profit , without breaking a single law of what is now called Political Economy- Of course it would be cruel , and horrible , and unjust , and all that , but if you once allow such a thing as justice to enter into your calculations in one thing , you must allow it to enter in all things . You have no right to say , I will be just here aud not there , or even , I will make it my first object here and my second there . If justice exists at all , she is above all things and below all

      things—by her all things exist—and her all things must obey . Whatever voice is called into council —her ' s must he heard first . She must not merely give the casting vote . She must explain herself on the very object and ground of tbe debate . If then you are content not to keep your justice for Sundays , or for tbe saving of your own souls , let me ask you , is it just that the labourer should have no profit whatsoever on his own labour ? I say , no profit whatsoever . At present , the Agricultural labourer is able to save nothing . And only what a man saves is profit . A man ' s wages , if tbey are all spent upon his necessary food , clothes , and houserent , are no more profits to him than the money spent in keeping a steam-engine in repair is profit

      to the manufacturer , or the cost of paying a ship s crew and keeping a ship in repair , is profit to tbe shipowner . The labourer has a machine called his body , which is his stock in trade—without food , clothes , and other necessaries , that machine will not work but stop working and die . What it costs him to keep his body in working order is no more profit to him than the keep of a horse is . If you pay him no more than will keep that body in order , you make Mm work as much without remuneration aa your steam-engine does . And any system which , like tbe wages system , beats him down to the lowest upon which he can exist , is robbing him . As long as any farthing of profit accrues to the farmer from his labour , that farmer has robbed him of

      bis share of that profit . There was a contract between two men to execute a joint work . The farmer found capital , the labourer found physical strength . Both of them contributed over labour a certain quantity of skill and reason . When the contract is completed , the farmer has subsisted during the time , and over and above gained profits . Tlio labourer has subsisted also , and over and above gained nothing . The farmer has therefore robbed the labourer of bis share of the profits . Tbe profit may be very small , but there is some ; therefore lie ought to have had a share of it . It is no use to say it is the labourer ' s own fault , or rather the fault or his class—that his wages depend cpon himself—because tbey depend upon tbe competing numbers in choose to

      the labour market , and therefor e if they multiply recklessly , they must take the consequences of their own multiplication . Upon my word , gentlemen and ladies , when I hear an argument like that in a Christian country , I wonder what is become of our consciences . Grant that they have done wrong iu multiplying recklessly , as it is called—th'ja take the argument out ot the rapid wordy cant in which it is the fashion to clctbe it , and translate it into plain honest English , and what does it mean ? It means this : " Ay , ye poor miserable fools , we have you now—when you were fewer , we could not take advantage of you ; but now we have found . out tbe secret of making your numbers your weakness and not your strengthyou have been fools enough to increase , and multiply , and replenish the earth , a : ; d we will take advantage of your folly—you have given way to rour animal passions , and now your self-indulgence

      shall be your loss and our gain . You shall compete against each other , the father against the son , and tbe child against the grown man , you shall be mutual enemies—hindrances in each other ' s wayanatchers of the bread out of each other ' s mouths —you shall be envious and wretched , starving for au"ht we care , for you have been fools enough to multiply , and the laws of a just God , and a world for which the Son of God died , allow us Christian employers , to make our profit out of your folly , and to visit your ignorance remorselessly upon your own heads—you have put yourselves into our nower and now , by the sacred laws of competition , we will make you smart bitterly for your own weakness . " There it is , gentlemen and ladies , in plain English . That is a single , practical statement of the doctrine that wages are to be determined bv tho competition of the labour market , as it must appear in the eyes of a God who gave us the

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      Bible , anu \ asit wil 1 surely appear one day in the eyes of the wbv . ' civilised universe . Mr . Kingsley proceeds to show tho impossibility of meeting the demands of an increasing population under the present system of tillage , and in a clear and concise . manner developes his reasons for the belief—that- we can grow the enormously increased produce demanded , p rofitably , by means of association alone . On these points we are happy to find so admirable a writer repeating views which we have advocated for years : — ' i

      The cost of agricultural production , it begins now to be seen , depends more and more on the cost of the raw material—in plain English , of manure . Our forefathers , getting hold of virgin soils , took their produce out of the natural staple of the soil , and put nothing back . By this means they exhausted the land ; , but tbey got decent crops , 'in spite of their bad tillage , because the raw materials of food existed in theland . But they exhausted the soils , and were then driven , in order to keep up the rate of produce , to more careful and expensive methods of tillage . It soon came out that they thus grew more corn on bad land , than they used to do on good ; but that it did not of course pay them as well . While matters were in this state , arose the

      political economists , and beheld round them two facts : 1 st . That population was increasing faster than production ; and , 2 nd , that land , after a certain quantity of labour per acre had been invested in it , did not return a proportionable increase ( of produce , to an increased investment of labour . How they knew nothing at all about production , being philosophers , and hardly knowing a plough from a barn-door ; and indeed nobody round them knew much about agriculture . Such men as Young , Davy , Parkinson , and Bakewell , of Dishley , were , after all , only groping in the dark—nobly and manfully enough , but still not scientific agriculturists , only tbe prophets and forerunners of scientific agriculture . So these early political economists , as

      frail man is wont to do , took their two temporary facts to be eternal laws—did not see that they only held true while the art of production improved at the exceedingly slow rate at which it was then advancing , and gave up population and agriculture , and indeed the destinies of humanity itself , as a very bad job , and settled that man ' s business was to decrease his numbers , and increase his pocketmoney , as much as possible , and to eat and drink , for to-morrow he died . But all the while , if they would have had a little more faith in God , and , therefore , in the land , God ' s inestimable gift , and in science , God ' s revelation , they > ould have suspected that what was happening to agriculture was only what has happened to most other scientific matters in , thoir infancy . —To steam power for instance . When the powers of steam were first

      discovered , everyone acknowledged the increased force which might be obtained by it , but they found that that increase of force was reudered nugatory by the increased expense of working it , so that in one casein the last century , a Thames water company after having employed one of the then newly , invented steam engines , gave it up as too expensive , and returned to the old water wheels . So it was with the first discoveries in steam travelling . The first attempts on the high roads did not paybut that did not prevent the secret of profitable steam traffic being discovered at last . -So with almost every new discovery you have various attempts more or less physically successful , but pecuniarily unprofitable , till at last you hit off the right thing , and it pays and succeeds , and instead of lessening employment creates new employment a thousand fold . And so it will be with agriculture .

      The day will come when the improvements in production increasing yearly , almost monthly , with more and more rapidity , because they are based on sound induotivesoience , will far out run any increase of population ; when an increased investment of capital in land will pay ten fold , instead of being , as now In most cases , all but a dead loss ; when the truest economy of labour will bo the greatest possible employment of it ; when the masses , now crushed together to fester and putrify in our great cities , will be scattered abroad again over the face of the country , restored once more to those healthy agricultural employments , < rom which their forefathers were allured away by the short-sighted cupidity of themselves and their employers . This will be done by science . Eut I see no means by which

      science can do it , except by Association . For , as I said before , the cost of agricultural production depends mainly on the cost of manure . And the cheapest of all manures ought to be sewage ma * nure . The population of any country returns to tbe soil , in the form ofsewago fit for immediate absorption by the roots of plants , the whole raw material of its last year ' s food , i . e ., all the homegrown , and all the imported food . Ol this fact there is no doubt whatsoever . And , therefore , there can be no fear of want of materials for food in any country let the population increase as fast as it will , unless the yearly increase per cent , surpass the proportion of the imports to the homegrown food . To show you what I mean :

      —Suppose a population of 10 , 000 , who are feed for one year by home-grown food for 8 , 000 , and imported food for 2 , 000 . They will return to the soil , as raw material for next year'scrop food for 10 , 000 . By the end of the year they will have increased , say as a huge rate of increase , far larger than ours , 5 per cent . Then ^ next year there will be 10 , 500 people to feed on home-grown food for 10 , 000—that year ' s imports—and which therefore need be this year only enough to feed 500 ;—and the next year after the population , though increasing at the same rate would more than support itself , and become an exporter of food to countries less thrifty than itself . I assert this on the authority of Liebig and all good chemists as an indispuatablo fact Of science .

      The question is , why do we not support ourselves ?—simply becanse we throw away every year into our rivers , nine-tenths of the raw materials of food . A very small proportion of the solid sewage in the neighbourhood of great WWUS IS bought awl used by market gardeners , and the rest goes down to the sea , and then we wonder why we are overpeopled , and have to import corn year by year . — The thing needs no argument . But what has all this to do with Association ? I assure you , 'that it has to do with ^ Association ; and that it was one of tbe happiest days of my life when I found out that it had ; when after years of seeking and studying over the present waste of land ,

      waste of manure , under-production , over-population , pauperisation , and the rest of it , trying to find some practical remedy , and seeing none in heaven or earth , the truth gradually dawned on tne that there was a remedy in what people now call Association—what I call common justice . That if we had treated the labouring classes as our brothers , if we had done to them as we would be done by , if we had treated the land as God ' s loan to us , to be used for the good of the common weal , an J not for private profit , —iu a word , if we had bp en just and righteous , we should not have been in this per plexity ; that righteous actions like free trade , would nerer have hurt the agriculturists and parsons as they have .

      Now consider , said I to myself , as I say to you now ; God gave tho sun and air , the light of heaven and the green earth , freely to all men , to enjoy if not to possess . He put Adam , says the old Hebrew Bible , not into a garret or cellar , but into tbo garden of Eden—and to dress and keep it . Surely , if that means anything , it means that the right life for a man is more or less of a country life—that he should have his share of those common country pleasures , without which , at least at intervals , life is all but insupportable . We know , we appreciate the blessing of a life of healthy labour , beneath blue skks , amid green fields . Ay , to us , tho bitter , frost and the iron-bound sky of the winter moors seems mere healthful , more natural , more invigorating

      than the foul artificial warmth of the London alley —why is the country a desert , and the city a crowded stye ? We have made it so . Have we doncwell ? And surely , I said , God's bio-sing is not on those great towns . If tbey were according to his will , which is the law of human-kind , they would not be breeding fever , cholera , drunkenness , weakliness , pauperism , theft , prostitution , discontent , rebellion , as they do . It cannot be His will , which is the law of nature , that ten years , on an average , should be cut off the life of each human being who goes to live in them . And moreover , it cannot be His will that the raw materials of food should be in them irremediably wasted , and thrown away—God ' s blessing is not on them . Wo have sinned in enticing the people into them , to live the wretched , artificial , unhealthy , smoke-grimed lives

      they live . Doubtless tbey have their advantagesthey quicken the mind , tbey promote interchange of thought—but for evil as well as for good . Perhaps , if wo had obeyed God ' s laws , and kept the poor in tbo country , where God put them , we should have found some means of obtaining all those advantages of civilisation , without any of tre fearful evi . s which accompany them . Surely we have sinnedfor whv did we draw them and drive them into the i cities ? ' For their own good ? So . To work tor . us—for our own profit;—sometimes , God wrg « e us , for our own lust have we created tnese living hotbeds of all misery and evil , and let the population grow up in them untaught * unoarsa tor , uuevangelised , ungoverned , while we have , by keeping down the colonisation of the country districts , left the agricultural laborers ns isolated and lonelv , as itinerant and brutal , as they were cvo

      hundred years ago . * ¦ * * * We broke the moral laws of justice , and tbey have avenged themselves by increasing the cost or production of ev cry article . That depends pri ncipally on the co ' , t of labour—and that again principally on the y . rice of food ; and wo , ourselves ^ i . ; our own sins have increased the price of food m England , tj' ^ th e employer finds that he cannot bring dov n wages any lower—that his workmen

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      a ? e rfln ; di i ' # ot threateii rebellion-t ^ t they mfned hv fL ^ l , tbat n , inimum P » H deterrefuS IW f 00 d ' below **» they will Bmrit / L tn - » not from Propagating their E neh Zf n a ^™ t-phanton of " economists , l ? J 2 , ^ the lie alrec * . Proving that the rlsel VtT i 8 cr ushed th 8 fa 8 ' thi in-Sain f ± - ? r Which th - ey * m refuse to throat ? emigrating or cutting his wWhS ! ^ *"' e ' . the PW * farmers and squires who hill ^ hA to depopulate the parish , wno have been priding themselves on employing & in ^? Uttn !? of ba nd 3 ' wno nav 0 bee Wli » K down the cottages , and driving the poor into the ff' ^ t ^ of N ?« towns , and fancying themselves the greatest sages ia the world , when nave got a poacher or two to emigrate , and thin the desert round them a little more , or trying to grow more corn , i „ order to get a living , and oanuot

      ,-witu an tbeir drills , and horse-hoes , and cjo d-crushers , and draining , and subsoiling , tbey wot * away at the pump-handle , but the well is dry —tney are skinning the flint , and shearing the hog , and there is much cry , and little wool , ^ xcept m a few tare instances of unredeemed nek soil , the material * of corn are not tnero , and therefore the corn wo ' nfc grow , because it can ' t . The materials of corn are gone , years ago . They are down the Thames tideway , six feet deep in the mud at tbe Nore by this

      v ? u * i tte barbarism of the towns has made away with them—never to return . Aud the human bemgs who would have afforded freab . supplies of the raw material , are gone too ; they are breeding tever and cholera in back streets miles away and the return of their sewerage to the land some thirty or forty miles off is so expensive a process , that it pays the poor Laputan farmer better te buy guano from the coast of Peru—and fetch his raw material five thousand miles round Cape Horn —than it does to purchase a far better article , . produced at his own doors . And now the guano-supply , which God in Ills great mercy sent unexpectedl y , to pour into England the material of millions of pounds weight of food , just before tbe

      terrible need of the Irish famine , is running short too , will perhaps , stop entirely in the next three or four years . . And God is going to leave the farmer to the fruit of his own devices , to skin flints , and see if Tie can grow corn out of them . And oh ! there is an awful Divine mockery in it allsuch as that whereof it is written : He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh them to scorn , and the Lord shall have them in derision , * * * The problem of agriculture , then , seems to me to be , how to restore the sewerage to the land ; and this , I am inclined to believe , after having cast the matter over in my mind for several years , can only be done by restoring the population to the land .

      But if the present decadence of the majority of cottages is favourable for my scheme , the new produets which are being introduced into agriculturei are still more so , I have long thought it a very questionable point whether the agriculture of any country should depend mainly for its profit on fcha production of necessary food . Except under a perfect system of associative organisation throughout a whole nation , such as we cannot expect to see realised for centuries to come , it gives the agriculturists too strong an interest in keeping up the price of food , and neglecting to produce tbe raw material for home manufactures . On these latter , I think , the agriculturist should depend for his main profit ; and the matt-rials of food shall enter into his calculations aa a source of income , of course in order that it may be worth his while to grow them , but only as a secondary one . And

      there is no fear that this should make him neglect the production of food . For by one of those blessed laws of nature , which show , if anything can , tbe loving wisdom of God , most of the most important raw materials of manufacture , such aa flax and silk , extract from the soil . little or none of the ele ^ ments ot hod , while by the superior tillage they require , they render the soil , as in the Belgian farms , and in the Norfolk flax farm of that truly great man , Mr . Warnes , of Trimmingham , actually more fertile in producing food ; even wool , which contains a large proportion of nutritive matter , forms only an apparent exception , for the elementof food which it contains is one of which a welldrained and tilled soil receives an inexhaustible supply from every shower of rain , while in proportion as any well secured agricultural population is also well clothed , tho wool tbey produce and wear would be returned to the soil in the sewage .

      2 fow Mr . Warnes and others have proved beyond a doubt that flax may be grown on . the Belgian method in our soil and climate , at a higher profit than wheat , so as to increase and not diminish the fertility of the land ; while by what I must call a special interposition of God ' s goodness , the recent discoveries of Chevalier Chussen have proved beyond a doubt , that the flax fibre can be adapted to our cotton machinery , so as to render us independent , if we choose , of American cotton ; and open a vast new demand for home-grown flax , uniting thus the manufacturing and agricultural interests at another point . All we want , is manure to grow the flax with , and that we can get hy a system of proper sewage ; and I assert after much thought , by that only .

      Having thus laid the foundation , Mr . Kingsley proceeds to sketch the plan of an establishment , by which an unencumbered landlord or master manufacturer might do justice to the people with thorough and practical success : — . Let a large manufacturer establish a flax farm in a convenient spot , where steam or water power was at hand . Let him l . uild there such mills , & c , as should work up that flax , and round them locate , as thickly as possible , all tho mechanics and labourers employed . A common kitchen , washhouses , & c & c , especially a common and wellorganised system of sewage , would at once raisethe . sanitary reports will tell US how much—the COhlfort and civilisation of his workpeople , and at

      the same time cheapen the cost of their subsistence . Tho sewage of the whole establishment should be laid on over the farm . The value of this sewage may be put at from thirty shillings to two pounds per head , and as being sufficient to keep one acre per head in a state of permanent fertility . At all events , there would be added to the supply of manure usual on every farm , the sewage of a dense population . The mills might either , in the case of steam « power , be placed at the highest point of the farm , and tho sewage laid on at high pressure by mere gravitation , or if water power was employed ,, and the mills therefore at a lower point / the sewage might i . < e driven over a stand-pipe equal in height to tbe highest point on the grounda method , as you doubtless are aware , already profitably employed in many cases .

      In such as establishment at this , besides the flax crop , the greater part of the labourers' food might be grown on the farm , more cheaply than anywhere else , because the whole of each last year ' s food would be at once returned to the soil , at an expense per acre of not one quarter of that now incurred in manuring with yard dung . Thus the establishment might be made chemically , as well as economically , self-supporting ; returning continuall y to the soil the raw material of the flax-crop ; while the nitrogen absorbed from the air by tbe flax plant , and tbe food , & c , brought into the establishment yearly , would go either to increase continually the fertility of the farm , or , when the limit of profitable investment had been reached , to increase its size . A few simple calculations , as to the amount of flax which would be probably grown per acre , and the number of hands required to till and work it up , would enable us to adapt tbe breadth of land to tbe number of colonists .

      The preparation ot tbo finx for the mill , and the lighter and more delicate agricultural'labours ( of which flax requires a far greater proportion than any other English crop ) would give continual employment to women and children , and even to artisans in their spare hours or slack time ; and a very little foresight might so regulate the alternation of field anil mill work , as to leave no one unemployed , even for a day , the whole year round . On the benefits of such * an arrangement , to all employed , it would be hardly necessary to dilate .

      The labourer would gain , by intercourse with tbe artisan , the civilisation and energy he now so sadly lacks . The artisan would acquire a health , a cleanliness , an el . sticity of mind , too often impos sible to him in a crowded city , amid alternations of protracted mill labour and utter idleness . And the whole community , under the rcgahtion of cievics and superintendents , might aiford employment , as our railways are now doing , to a middlo class far more enlightened , energetic , anil humane , j & an the farmers who are now too often despotic over labourers , not more ignorant than themselves .

      Tho method of associating the labourers to the profits , might be gradually 9 ? ganiscd withe same plan as has been so beneficially employed by several Parisian employers , as detailed ill the " second volume of Mi ' . Mill ' s Political Economy . I think the agricultural and manufacturing departments should be kept , strictly separate , ana those who at any periods of the ycai- may have been employed in both , alternately , receive profits in both characters , according to tbe time tfwy hav & been employed . A simple plan of ensuring the success of the fla ' x crop , would bo to let it out , after sowing , in portions' to separate families , giving them a peculiar percentage on its profits . A benefit club for o'd age and sickness , should be attached to it , paid up by a pov-centage on the whole profits , of employer as well as employed . The employer would thus be saved from the necessity of alms—by acknowledging what I must call the necessity of justice .

      A co-operative store should be : itt : ichod to the establishment , as Weil as the common kitchen , at which the workmen ccuSd obtain , without any of the evils of the truck system , all tbey wanted , V . t a low tariff fixed by an agent appointed by them-

      The Application Of Associative Princi P ...

      T ^ - * i , - Incedno ^ ] iDto - detail this point If the thing can be done in every barrack £ , and club , and college , and workhouse , it can be done there , and better done , because every one the employer included , will h » ve a direct interest in increasing the savings of tbe workmen , in order that none of them may become chargeable to the poor rate—and as little as possible to the benefit club , I should like to see a fixed written contract between employer and employed , for seven years at least , guaranteeing to every family entering the establishment , certain advantages , on the condition of certain services and regulations . Thus the workmen would go in with their eyes open , and know what they had to expect , while the employer would have the means of coercing or expelling any , who wilfully broke the charter of the esta * blishment .

      Finally , add to this a school , and a library , both possible at a saving of expense to each member , proportionate to the size of the esta blishment—and you have combined , without breaking a single law either of justice or political economy , a club house , a manufactory , and an industrial parish . And here is his plan for enabling the people to become farmers , manufacturers , and proprietors , through the medium of association : — . Suppose , instead of spending £ 20 an acre in buying land , the working-men spent a fraction of that sum m renting and stocking it . And mind—if one family rented a piece of land , they would require SmhSr-fT *¦• ?• "'?!* Jt ; whilo thegreaterthe number of families who are associated and take

      , a farm m common , the less money per acre will they require to begin with ; not only because all operaf i ™ ^ " , cted fw more cheaply by oombina-A > thl „ T $ \ large 8 Cale ' because tbe sewage of the establishment counts as capital . Now for cWo first expense , for ten families of an average of five souls , £ 50 worth of sewage may be collected yearly , thus repaying near 200 per cent , on the investment ; and this will bo sufficient to keen at least fifty acres of land in constant fertility . Now fifty acres of land will produce food for ten families . They may take more afterwards ; let them , however begin with a little . Let them offer to take some vacant farm , on one only condition , that it shall be thoroughly drained , and that they shall

      have a fair lease of at least fourteen years . The certain fall of rents which is coming will render this easier for them just now than it ever was , because they , cultivating the land themselves , and so putting farmers' profits , as well as labourers' wages into their own pockets , will be able to afford to give a higher rent than any tenant farmer . Let them sign two agreements , one to stand by each other , for weal or woe , without splitting till the expiration of the lease ; and the other , an agreement with tho landlord , absolutely necessary in the present method of poor-law rating , that no one of them will , during the lease , under any circumstances , become chargeable to tbe parish poorrates , and that at the expiration of tbe leaseto

      , prevent any one ' s becoming so chargeable , the society engages to pay each his fair share out of the value of the stock , & c , then on the farm—an agreement , be it remembered , which will make it tbe landlord ' s interest to make the lease as long as possible . Let them associate with them some practical farm labourer , it possible a Scotchman , or Yorkshireman , who shall superintend agricultural operations , and teach them the business , and let them , obey him , if he tells them to plant their cabbages head downwards—we must have no republics in agriculture . A dictatorship , or starvation , my good friends , are the only two alternatives . I believe if they tried this plan , and adopted such a course of cropping as I , by the help of men wiser

      than myself could furnish them with , they might live . And if they made flax or silk , or both , the chief element of their profits , I think they might make a very fair profit . As for silk , I KllOW of an old weaver at Norwich , who used to keep himself by the produce of bis silk-worms , fed and reared in the heart of the city itself ; and as for the method of silk-growing , 1 will engage that any woman who is sent down to me , at the proper season shall learn the whole business thoroughly , from the beginning , on the most improved Italian method , in the course of two months . They will find a ready sale for their flax and silk , and as they progressed , work future benefit , 1 hope , for themselves . Their

      marketing may be all done by one person , instead of by ten , at an immense saving of time and expense . And by putting themselves in communication with some good co-operative store , they may get their goods forty per cent , cheaper than the peasants round them . Of course the first year they would havo to rough it ; because they would have to support themselves on their capital till their crops came in ; and therefore 1 should advise that as many as possible of the number should be men who could turn a penny by handicrafts , at odd hours , to meet present expenses . The main difficulty of course would be tho capital—£ 250 raised by ten families , besides travelling expenses . But it seems to me that a trades' union

      would find it a profitable thing to advance part ol that sum to some of its members , and send them down as pioneers ; aud then if the project succeeded , as it certainly would if they all behaved like good men and true , landlords would have no objection to allow them to extend their operations , and renew tboir lease or allow them to redeem the rents and gradually become proprietors . I believe , I say again , that there are plenty of landlords who would look favourably on such a scheme , if they saw the men rational and well disposed , and who would foster it with kindly care , and very probably cut one hard knot for the associates , by

      recommending them out Of their own tenantry an agricultural leader . And I am equally sure , also , tuat any landlord who did so would find it a blessing to his estate , by bringing into it an example of thrift , industry , and brotherhood which would teach his labourers the very lesson thoy want , and which they never will learn under the present system ; conduce to do » w ; iy with the cursed incubus of DOOr-rates , by teaching tbe peasantry that it is worth their while to save money from the beershop , and increase their civilisation by enabling them to mix with the more educated and energetic town artisans .

      The length of our quotations is the best proof we could give of the value we attach to this lecture , which we should like to seo printed as a cheap tract , and distributed broadcast through the country .

      Books Received. Adventures Of An Emigran...

      BOOKS RECEIVED . Adventures of an Emigrant , in Search of a Colony By C . RowcnoFi . Parlour Library . The Countess of liudalstat . By Geobob Saso . Par lour Library . London : Simpkin , Marshall , and Co . The Girlhood of Shakespeare ' s Heroines . Juliet , th White Dove of Verona . By JlAW COWDKN fJL & ItKE Tinmlrtn XV II SmifJi nml Son Rrrnnrl

      Aiiempien Escape Of Iiackeit From Nis Am...

      AiiEMPiEn Escape of IIackeit from nis American Prison . —Captnin Bowyer , the chief officer of tho New York Police in London during the Great Exhibition , received letters from America by post , informing him of a most daring attempt a " t escape by the notorious George Hackett and his

      confederate , who are now confined in New Jersey Gaol , awaiting their trial for the plate robbery recently committed by them on the other side of tho Atlantic . Captain Uowyer ' s information is to the effect that ono of tho turnkeys , well acquainted with Ilackett ' s reputation , had been watching him with more than ordinary vigilance , and on going to lock him up for tho night suddenly missed him from the place be should have been in at the time . Search was instantly made , and he was found secreted near one of the outer passage-doors of the building ready to avail himself of tho first opportunity to esoape , as iio did at Ventonville . Suspicion in the meantime was dircrted towards his

      accomplice , and ho was also dragged from his hidingplace by the prison officers . On being searched a lui'jjo pointed knife , resembling a eouteau de chczssc , was discovered in the leg of his pantaloons , though how he obtained it is at present a mystery .. On this being brought to light ho sulkily exclaimed , " Every man has his day , and George and BQ 8 will havo oura yet , for our livos ain ' t worth much in this way . ' * ' They were b & th reconducted by a secret route to distant and separate calls und' r verv close surveillance , and ironed till the trial . The woman who accompanied them from England is also committed for trial , sufh ' cisr . t evidence having been adduced to connects her as an accomplice in the same robbery .

      The National Galikrv . —On M & ndny > otics > . was issued at tho National Gallery , Trafalgar-squBVC , and at the Vernon Collection , Marlborough Hous ? , thai thoy would bo closed to the public on Saturday 30 th inst ., for the annual vacation . They will bo re-oponod to the public an Monday , the 27 th of October . Coxvextiox of Free Keggoes i . n Inhuxa . — A convention of free people of colour is now in session at Indianapolis , and is occupied in deliberating upon various matters n'latinc to the inU-vests of its constituents as a c ! : is- ' . There ia said to exist , amons its members a strong inclmntion lo remove

      out of the State of Indiana to some other country , where they hope to enjoy greater social advantages . iVfuv much debate a resolution was adopted , by a largo majority , providing that should the laws of tlufStatc become so oppressive as to bo intolerable , they would recommend their people to emi grate to Canada , Jam-iica , or elsewhere in preference to Liberia , against which there appears to bo a violent p rejudice in the convention . Among the countries ^ pu ' lien of for tho purpose of emigration , uusideS those mentioned , arc Mexico , New Granada , and Central America ; but Canada is generally regarded as most eligible , on account of its ace ' essa-. bility . — Kexv York Herald .

      Paring*.

      paring * .

      Eveuybonv's ' Bdslfless .'8 Nobody's Bus...

      EvEUYBonv ' s ' bdslfless . ' 8 nobody ' business-yeC " everybody" attends tdif , ,.. .. . _ Prudent men lock up theh * Wu . tlves ' 8 IV 1 D S *>™ J their inmates a key . . EcoNOMy .-People seldom leaffl economy t . 'J ' have little left to exercise it on . A machine has been invented Which will onload * colliers at the rate of thirty tons of Coals per ho « r . lb ? Pvjr 3 f y r th letter B like a man sitting at ^ ft « « f " 5 * * branc » <> a treef-Becadsl it makes the end fand . "It does one good to look at you , " as- the foS said to the chickens , when he found the wall too high for him to leap . . Never give a boy a shilling to hold vour shadow * while you climb ft tree and look into the middle of nest week—it is money thrown awav .

      A MAiPEiV ' a LxEKCiSE . —A young lady , whett told to take exercise for her health , said she would ] jump at an offer and run her own risk . Detraction . —There is no readier way for a mas to bring bis own worth into question , than by en « deavouring to detract from the worth of other men . A Puseyite journal thinks that some people eafe so heavy a dinner on Sundays that they can't carry it to church , and thus accounts for the numerous absentees . A Msnnt batchelor says that wives who are good needlewomen are like the enemy spoken of in tha parable ; they gew tares while the husband-men sleep . Proof Positive . — " Upon your oath , sir , " said ] a barrister , fiercely , " will you swear that this is not your handwriting ?"— " ! will , " said tbe witness , coolly , "for I can ' t write . "

      Very Akkoyisg . —To be seated with an aristocratic friend , telling him how wealthy your family is , and have a poor relation enter the room at the critical moment . Flats . —Why are there more simpletons in the city of Edinburgh than in any other city in Europe ? —Because there are often as many as ten , and sel » dom less than six / afci in one house . Comparison . — " Bill , " said one apprentice to another , " my governor is a better man to work for than yours ; mine ain't always going round the shop interfering with his own business , " Forgiveness is tbe most refined and generous point of virtue that human nature - can attahv tOi Cowards have done good and kind' actions ; but a coward never forgave : it is not his nature .

      Stable ( net iable ) Talk . — " 1 say , Jim , take Black Sal ' s harness and put it on Jenny Lind—giver Napoleon some oats—take Alboni to water—and then rub down Fanny Elssler . "— "Ay , ay , sir . " A Flower for a Lover ' s Button-uole . —A lady ' si cheek is described as the poetical abode of the rose ; but we are not told what kind of rose . When aa ardent lover steals a kiss , weaupposeit is a " cabbage * rose ! " — Punch . Scanoal . —Dr . Johnson being once in company with some scandal-mongers , one of them having accused an absent friend of resorting to rouge , he observed , " It is , perhaps , after all , much better for a lady to redden her own cheeks , than to blacken other people ' s characters . "

      The Model HusnANn . —Mrs . Smith has eompany to dinner , and there are not strawberries enoagh , and she looks at Mr . Smith with a sweet smile , and offers to help him ( at the same time kicking him gently with her slipper under the table ) . He always replies — " No , I thank you , my dear ; they don ' t agree ) with me . " Church Sehvices . —According to Mr . iJSaster ' a List of Services , there are eighty churches in Londoa in which the Holy Communion is celebrated weekly ; fifty-four in which there is daily service , and in thirtyfour of these two services daily . Throughout England and Wales daily service is performed in 564 churches , and in seventy-eight of them the service is choral .

      How to obtain a Song . —A young man from tU 9 Country about to call on some musical young : ladies the other evening , was told that he must ask tbem losing , and , should they refuse , he ought to press them . Accordingly he commenced by requesting MissMary to favour him with a song . She gently declined , said she had a cold , < fec . " Well , then , miss , " said our hero , " thuppose I thqueeze you , don ' tyou think you could thing ? " The girl fainted immediately .-The llittYES'C—The reports from lhe provinces announce that the cereal harvest of 1851 will bea full average one ; but the quality of the grain cannot be ascertained till it is brought to the mill . As a drawback on these favourable reports , come rumours from Ireland , and different parts of Great Britain , that the potato blight has again shown itself ; but , up to the present time the disease is only of a . mitigated type .

      A Nice Case for Couk & kl . —At Crieff , in Fifeshire , one Brydie was lately robbed of JEO , and gave the offender into cuatody . " Up then came a third per " son , from whom Brydie had stolen the money . It was now Brydie ' s turn to be arrested . What will be done with the first prisoner ? If committed for trial , how will the indictment be laid ? Whom did he rob , the money not oving Bry die ' a 1 Very Prolific . —In a small village in Cleveland , tbe well known and generally observed injunction contained in the first chapter of Sacred Writ , has long and liberally been obeyed by tbe ecclesiastical functionaries . The clergyman ' s wife has blessed him with sixteen children ; the clerk , outstripping his superior by three , numbers nineteen ; the sexton comes short of both , but his olive branches are fourteen . Total offspring of parson , clerk , and sexton , fifty save one !

      Rusticity Astonished , —Two rustics , who taJ lately arrived at Poullon by an excursion train front Yorkshire , were rambling about the shore , when one of them discovered a larje anchor on the beach . Never having seen such a thing before , and unaware of the use to which it was applied , he was struck with astonishment . At last the happy thought struck him that he had discovered its use , aud , turning to his companion , he explained , " Loo' thee , Bill , what a gret meety pickaxe !" To Deaden this Socot or AXT Au'VIL . —If a Ohaill , abtlUt OUe i ' .-ofc long , formed of a few large links , is suspended to the small end of an anvil , it will destroy , we are told , that sharp , thrilling noise produced by striking on it with the hammer ; the vibrations of the anvil are extended to the ciir . in , which absorbs them , without producing any sound . This is worth trying by anybody who has a blacksmith , or , worse yet , a coppersmith for a neighbour . —Builder .

      A Profitable Cat . —A short time since , a poor Irishman applied at the churchwarden ' s office , at Manchester , for relief , and upon some doubt bsing expressed as to whether he was a proper object for parochial relief , he enforced his suit with much earnestness . " Och , yerhonour , " said he , " sure I'd be starved long since but for my cat . "—" But for what ? " asked the astonished interrogator . "— "My cat , " rejoined the Irishman . — "Your cat ! how so ?"— " Shure , yer honour , I sould her eleven timeg for sixpence a time , and she was always at home before I'd get there myself . "

      Railway Tkavkllikc—An excellent suggestion has been made to check the confusion and delay at railway stations , so far as the nuisance originates in the fault of passengers . Passengers who do not present themselves at a stipulated time might bo subjected to an extra charge for admission to the platform or tbe carriage ; just as an extra stamp is charged on letters not posted at the hour tor-closing the boxes . By this gentle screw the bulkof the passengers would be forced into their places ^ in good time , and the comparatively few who might be delayed bv heedlessness or ill luck would be easily disposed of . In any case , rigid adherence to the appointment hour of depai ture ought to bo enforced , cost what it might .

      Advice to Young Mex . —Let the business of every one alone , and attend to your own . * Don ' t buy what you don ' t want . Use every hour to advantage , and study to make even leisure- hours useful . Think twice befeie you spend a shilling—remember you will have another to makevor it . Buvlow , sell fair , and take care of the r-volUs . Look over your books resularly , and if you find au error , trace it out . Should , a stroke sf misfortune come upmi you in trade , retrench . —work harder , but never fly the track . Confront difficulties with unflinching perseverance , and they w 11 disappear at last ; though yon should even fall in the Mrugijle , you will be honoured—but shrink ,, and ycu will 09 despised . „ .

      bMOKixo & E . STS . —flow mucii is it to be desiredthat the tribe of pests in this country would imitate the can dour instanced in the following fact , narrated by an American , contemporary . "You must not smoke here , sir , " said the captain of a North River steam-boar , to a man who was smoking : among the ladies on the week . — "I mustn ' t ! ha ! —why . not V replied the fallow , opening hfe capacious mout !' , and allowing the smoke to escaps slowly , —" Didn ' t you sse the notice ? G & nti & in « n are requested not to smote abaft the enoiiw .. ' * — ' ' H ' es-ji your sou !! that don ' t msan me ; I am no gentleman —never pretended to be—you can ' t make agemlemaji of s ; e no how you can fix it . " So savfpw \ C puffed away , and to » k tho responsibility . * 0 > FkjiaJ j e Ubltwxox .-There are few ' greater mi • • ta . ies than the prevailing disposition a mens people in middling life to

      bring u » thei ? daMiitcvs as huu latues , uoglcctms asel ' n ! knowledge fir showy accomplishments . " The T . OllOtK" ( ithnsboen fo stlv observed ) which jsirls tfcTO educated acqu ' re oNheir own impor t ance , is an inveiss rati ., of their tn : c value . \ l , 11 h just encash of fsshionnbie refinrmt-n ; to disqualify thrm for the duties of tlieir proper station , and vender Ultm ridiculous in a higher sphere , what are such fine ladies fit fori Koibmg ^ answers the same shrewd observer ) , nothing , ib » t I know but to be kept like wax figures in a glass ease . Woe to tho man that is linked to one of them ! It half the time and moncv wasted on the inv . sie tho Quiiciinr , und embroLlerv " , were employed- " ! teaching them the useful ar ' . s of n . aking shirts and n : em » ng I stockings , and managing household afla-rs , tunr pre-! sent qualifications as wives and mo : hers would Do in-I creased fourfold . "

  • Citation
    • Northern Star (1837-1852), Sept. 6, 1851, page 3, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/ns2_06091851/page/3/