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TO KOm ; . - ••• ¦¦ . I stood on the Forum ' s sacred ' earth ; ¦ ¦^ d gazed on the rains of Eoman birth , xjhong bt that each column its silence broke , Mid these words of fate the echoes woke ! ah R ome ! thou . panting heart of giant men , Thou that once wert—and then did cease to be ; ijgna dead—late risen—we -welcome thee again , flenwforth and ever more worthy to be free—M etropolis of the world ' s ruined paradise ! Tfriote altar of Italian sacrifice ! Thai startled Venice from her slumbers deep , ind bade fair Florence cease to mourn and weep ff Hope , and Truth , and Justice , can prevail , KaVbalt be free ! IIaU , aU hail !
Thou latest born of that giant birth , Bcrat by Freedom from the groaning earth , U ~ t and greatest of the Intercessors ! priding to Heaven ' gainst Crown'd Transgres-Amved in Wisdom ' s glorious mail , Ihoa didst cast aside the priestly cope , Stript every gaud—rent Error veil by veil , ¦ ffith eve and heart of quenchless Hope ! Tear not ! for Freemen gazing on their foe , More mighty are—whilst slaves more feeble grow ! Best thee 1 gnbUme-unawed—Maizmisname With thine , shall blazon yet the rolls of fame I A nd Hope , and Truth , and Justice , yet . prevail O ' er Fraud and "Wrong ! Hail , all hail I Thomas SIabiis Whsbieb .
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The Girlhood of Shakespeare ' s Heroines . In a Series of Fifteen Tales . By Maey Cowoes Clarke . Tale II . TAe Thane * s Daughter . London : Snath and Son ; Simi'Mu , Marshall , and Go . A few weeks ago we noticed the first tale of Ihi 3 series , Portia , the Heiress ofBelmont , and jioiv we have before ns The Thane ' s Daughter , the preludes to Lady Macbeth .
Every reader of Shakespeare is , of course , pell-acquainted with that character , at once one of the darkest , and most finel y drawn of any that' occur in the whole range of oar drama . The high-sooled , but unrelenting and merciless , woman , -with all the finest sympathies of the woman's nature , dimmed and paralysed by the promptings of a stern ambition Tor power , with scarcely a touch of tenderness or affection as a sign of holy memories
dwelling within her , except when she cannot slaythesleepingDuncan , becausehi 3 whitehairs remind her of her father ; risking all , prepared to sacrifice all , for the attainment of that power which had become her soul ' s God , a subtle demon rather than a tender woman , till the p rize is attained , and then , the object attained , the feminine nature asserting itself , and the mind under the horror of a memory too fearful to be borne , becoming so diseased that no
physician can minister to it . In this play of Macbeth we may notice the fine distinction between the natural action of the mind of the man and the woman . Macbeth , as open to the promptings of ambition as his Lady , is yet reluctant and vacillating , unwilling to consummate the crime over which he is to step to a throne , while she is forward and resolute , and recklessly hastens on the catastrophe . The purpose acts with the greater power than upon the weaker , the woman ' s nature . But the King dead , mark the difference . The reaction from high strung excitement has , like the purposes , the greater power , too , over the feminine organisation . The man grows far more determined and reso
lute than ever , but the woman sinks under the shock and becomes a wreck . The character , then , of which Mrs . Clarke lad to lay the foundation in the Thane ' s Daughter is one naturally ambitions ; loving power for its own sake , and under that stimulus , cruel and unscrupulous , such an one would not be needlessly sanguinary , but can suffer nothing to stand between herself and her object So that she would wade knee deep through blood if she thought it necessary ; but afterwards tlie physical rather than the mental sensibilities" of her sex arise and unnerve her .
Let us see how beautifully Mrs . Clarke depicts the process by which this character is formed by nature and education . To epitomise the story , the mother of Lady Macbeth is a noble , high-sonled , impetuous woman—a ward of the Scottish Crown , married for reasons of State policy to Kenneth , the somewhat aged Thane of Moray . The Thane is a kind-hearted , weak , irresolute man , whom tbe wife despised for his tameness of spirit and " the dark lady of Moray'' longs for a son , whom she may train cp to rule with a strong hand , and bear himself as becomes the descendant of a line of warriors . The son comes , bnt dies in its infancy , and the "dark lady"
becouifs still more imperious and morose . A daughter follows—the future Lady Macbeth . For some time the nurses feared to tell the mother that' the new-born baby is not a boy : and when she hears it , in the bitterness of her disappointment , she says that , being a girl , the child were as well unborn . From that time the dark lady seldom leaves her chamber—her own proud heart , inch by inch , is killing her—her vexed spirit chafes within , and wears away the form that enshrines it ; and so , by almost imperceptible degrees , Bhe pines away to a shadow , and dies . Her death-scene irili do something towards developing the texinre of the story Mrs . Clarke has woven , and
we extract it : — And there , week after week , and month after moiith , sat the dark lady , like a living statue , mute and immutable ; the only perceptible alteration in in attitude being a gradual sinking and collapsing of Uie frame , which brought her low , bent , and drooping , like a withered plant . Each day , and from day to day , the change could scarcely be traced ; but when she first assumed that seat , and that fixed position , her body was erect , haughty , ttitrgetic , and defiant ; before a twelvemonth had e ' ajsed , tbe muscles were flaccid , the flesh was shrunk and wasted , tbe cheek wa 3 worn and hollow , lie form was feeble , aud the wbole figure eat heaped whether languidly , as if devoid of vitality .
lire eye 3 alone retained their spirit . These still ^ ere lianghty , energetic , defiant as ever . For as si « sat there en ^ rapt in stony stillness , she would ^ atch the shifting clouds , now careering in fleecy ^ mteness across the sprinsr ajther , now dappling H ? ntiy the summer blue , no * hurrying athwart the murk y grey , or driving wildly along upon the storm wan ; but through all the countless varieties of lorm , and hue , aadmotion , in cloudiand , those dnrk ejes flashed ever towards the sky , proud defiance , ascuation , and resentment of hopes defeated . None tie leas a rebel to Heaven ' s will , for her voiceless ^ fa rd chafing ; it seemed as if the unrest of her soal fought all the more fiercely for the marble ^ escence of her bod v .
Ouclnght noon , even in that northern region , lrLfv ^ Lone w 5 th Powerful rays , and cast their wwtf light full into tbe chamber , where the dark J *? at « as usual dumb and motionless , surrounded fteralent women . - Bethoc , tie aged nurse , held the child in her t ™* . as u straggled , and strained , and held out its j *™ os towards the sunbeams , that shed their radi-~ ttem sneh bright alluring streams just within its i ? r i The crowin 3 J an ( * £ * sn "H tones of , ^ e ln" « one sounded strangely in that silent room cVv k ^ shouted its imperfect ntterances of J ™ pt atthegay dancing motes it beheld in the r ""** ms ; andstlilit leaped and bounded in the ^ e s arms , and clutched at the brilliant atoms it Eu ? 5 etom
gra . *» e mother ' s attention was arrested ; and she jj *« M upon the- infant ' s eagerness with a look of TOoy ?* ^ ^ laee *""* Dot > * * BKiay a tnJ ^ - ^^ t ion succeeded to delight , as the phan-* J bn- htnesa-still elnded pursuit . The . baby bands "d * ^ srily , and struck and bufieted at the * ' «* rays they could not seize . Oin " - k lady noted the rnge that sprang from u ? P » s : ti 0 n with a k * en satirfied glance .
tv /?? . 1 ' 3 succeeded t « smiles . Tears sparkled in Vi tt'il&sh eyes . Short shrieks , and cries of baffled B -. . °° k the place of former joyful crowings ; ibo !> *? at the window flew a small silver-win « ed liea r < . tnat *? ° ^ * - place w'ih the motes in the scndnJ ' r "kndnsr , and floating , and playing up and ^ . athefloba of light . fie , ! A ^ " "' le-object of interest and pursuit paci-* trJ ' antl ai * lts c 5 utcJ " ? « d strivings lur ! lea'i 15 r « l -and concentrated ipon this pretty j ^ -M spark of brightness . The oid nurse drew Te'it irii ter c ^ £ - " Lst . it alone , my rtariintr ; liWo i % io ™ 2 wee tllin S 5 J > 11 cnish tW poor -eiieajtjn . " . ¦ - ¦ _ _ ¦
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_ Tho . unwonted sound of her lady ' s voice mad s ^ Sasiswsipw * ssBsw a toui" 1- > ' «< sa wfs tne victim of her snccesB in babv tr iamDb ami m Sr ^?^ ^ si £ a asffia ^ i 1 ^'" *^^ " ^ Bethoc , bnng the little Amazon to me !" But
as she uttered the words , a sharp sudden ljce , and before the women could reach her , or Bethoc could place her child within her arms , the dark lady sank back—a corpse . From this time , the little Gruoch—fo r that was her name—was left to the care of her father , whose quiet , calm temper , too , ahows in its sympathies to be activel y affectionate or tender , and to the charge of her women attendants , who , of course , humoured her every whim , and she roamed about among the menat-arms as she liked . Following tuelove of power which the surrounding circumstances so well fostered in her aptnature , she chose for her companion a grim man-at-arms , who , in strength and dexterity , exceeds all his fellows : —
There was one man , she remarked , who was peculiarly skilful in the handling of all eorts of weapons . He was a tall , stalwart fellow , singularly uncouth and ngly , with wild shaggy hair % nda lerocious look . His name was Grym . But he uniformly surpassed all his companions in adroitness , bold daring , activity , expertness , and success in bis feats of arms . So to this large , ungaiDly , ill-favoured , but triumphant giant , did the child take a strong fancy , and he became a sort of hero , a personification of conquest and success , a favourite rallying point for all her wishes and interest in the scene of contention . Grym , although rough and coarse withal , and a daring soldier , had a tender heart ; and the child twined herself amid its chords with
that peculiar fascination which so often belongs to nature ' s ambition and fond of power . With Grym and Culen , a boyish page , she roams through the woods , practises archery , and sports in the castle ; and from this period of her girlhood we take a scene which shows how the baby , clutching the moth , had been developed into the girl . In the following extract , Grym , Culen , and the ThaWs daughter , are an the platform of the Castle , the latter tossing a ball which the page has brought her : —
For some time Gruoch continued to watch this pretty sight with interest ; then she stepped down from the stone eeat , and began to toss her ball a » ain . Suddenly it swerved in its upward flight , and fell just beyond the wall . The page sprang to the spot he had just quitted , and exclaimed : — "I see it ! It has lodged just below the nest ! Look ! On that frieze , that range of fretwork just beneath . " I see it ! I see it ! " cried Gruoch , who bad stepped up again by his side . " It looks quite near What a pity we can't reach it ! 0 my beautiful ball !" " If I had but a ledge ever so small to set my foot upon , I could get it ; I know 1 could ! " exclaimed Culen . " It ' s quite close , I could be over in a moment !" " Would you venture ? " said his young mistress , looking at him approvingly .
' * That I would 1 I could got it in an instant , if I had but a spot to step my foot noon—ever such a point would do ! If the martlets nest were not there , now , that would be quite room enough !" " But we can soon dislodge the nest , if that ' s all ! exclaimed Gruoch . " Here ' s one of Grym ' s long shafts—that'll do exactly to poke it off with . " 11 Oh no ! " said the page hastily . " Are you afraid 1 " said she , looking at him abruptly . " So . not that ; but I don't like—I can't push tbe nest off , " said Culen . " Then I will ! Give me the arrow ! " she exclaimed .
Gruoch leaned over the edge ; fixed the point of the arrow into the caked mud and earth which fastened the nest to the jatting point ; loosened it ; raised it ; and in another moment the martlet ' s home , with its unfledged tenants , spun whirling through the air , and was scattered to piece 3 striking against the buttresses and roueh-hewn walls . She stayed not to note its career , but turned to the page . - . ¦ " Sow , Culen ! It was a brave offer 1 Have you courage ? I will hold your hand firm ! Give it me . " The page seized the beautiful little hand that was held out to him , and taking the arrow in the other , that he might reach and secure the soft ball with it , he climbed over the edge of the outer wall , which was narrower there , on account of the deep recess that wa 3 made in its tuickness , and formed the ledge on which they stood .
Bat when he set his foot upon the jutting point which bad lately held the nest , and then planted the other foot on the same spot , and after that , carefully stooped down , and stretched his arm out , so-as to stick the arrow into the ball , that he might raise it , and convey it to the top of the wall , —he had no sooner effected this , than he suddenly felt his head reel , and his eyes swim , at tbe unaccustomed height over which he hung suspended , merely sustained by that frail support .
He closed his eyes for an instant , and struggled to nerve himself boldly against the thought Of the small point on which he stood , and to shut out the view of the depth beneath him . Gruoch felt the spasmodic twitch that these sensations communicated to the hand she grasped . " Keep firm , Culen ! Hold fast my hand ! I have yours tijht ! " And the small hand never trembled , or wavered , but clutched close , like a vice . Her voice did him goed ; her tone of resolution inspired him ; her steady grasp encouraged him ; and he was enabled to recall his dizzied senses . He looked up ; and as he beheld that exquisite face leaning over towards him , anxiety and interest in each lineament , and wish for his success beaming in every feature , he flung np the ball from the point of the arrow , aud strove to regain the top of the wall .
But on raising his arm to the edge , he found he should not be able to obtain sufficient purchase , — even when he should gain the assistance of the ether hand which was now held by Gruoch , —to enable him to draw himself up that height . Tbe point upon whieh he stood afforded too little space , the weight of his body was too great , to allow of his climbing up again unassisted . The page cast one look of mute dismay towards his young mistress . She perceived bis peril " Keep a brave heart , Culen ! Hold my hand steadily ! You are safe fear not ! " she exclaimed . He ! rGr 1 rh ; ip F GffiICOmeherej ^ ^
The whole scene has occupied some time to relate ; but it bad , in fact , passed eo rapidly , that by no means a long time had elapsed since Grvm had retreated to the other end of the platform" to fetch the arrows . While occupied in collecting them , he had not perceived what had been going on at that distance ; but he now hastened to the spot , on hearing his young lady ' s call for assistance . He soon perceived the emergency ; and hardly giving utterance to his thought : — " What have these children been about ? " he leaned over the top of the wall , and seizing Gulen ' s hand from Gruoch in bis own herculean grip , he drew him carefully , bnt readily , irom hi 3 perilous position ;
The first impulse of the kind-hearted bowman was o hug the lad in his arms , and to inquire whether he was hurt ; the next was to shake him by the scurf of his neck , and ; to ask him gruffly , "What d ' ye mean by playing such fool ' s tricks , master page ? Don't you see how you've frightened my young lady , here ?" And as they both looked at Gruoch , they saw her turn pale ; she staggered forward , and would have alien to the ground , had not Grym caught her in bis arms . " Poor lamb ! " he muttered , as he bore her gently to her own apartments to recover ; "She ' s as tender-hearted as she ' s beautiful . " "And she feels thus formcl" whispered Culen ' s icart as he stood rooted to the spot , his cheek fluked , and his chest heavinsrat the thought
, . lliey were wrong . Xeitber the page nor the man-at-arms guessed that hir swoon was tbe effect of mere phySlcai s ^ p ^ y . sic ] cening sen 8 e 0 , danger past ; a reaction of the nervcs ,-oVaced for the moment by strength of will , with an object in view .-bnr suddenly relaxed from tneir tension , by the native weakness of a frame less powerful than her spirit . r In this , tbe character of the future Ladv Macbeth is more than typified . "We see in
the above scene , in action , the qualities so powerfully influencing her after-life . The scattered bird ' s nest , with its callow young ,-vvhic the page did not like to disturb—the manner hi which she prompts him to his dangerous feat—the courage she evinces in tbe face of danger , and the quivering of the over-strung nerves , when the excitement has passed away , lay bare to ns her mixed nature , with its good . and evil—its reckless daring , and . its woman ' s instincts .- ggjfc f ""*^ -. ; . . . ¦ -
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From this period we can but ' trace / briefly , tne progress of the alread y formed character , bne , meets Macbeth , a young and rising warnor , with near claims to the throne , and loves him as much for his prospects of power and fame as for his personal qualities . A glance of approbation from Macbeth thrown npon a highland maiden who forms part of her suite , wakes up the jealousy of her nature , and Bhe sends Doada in the face of a coming snow storm to her mountain home , so that Macbeth may see her no more , and Doada , her first victim , perishes of cold by the way .
Grym , too , the faithful companion of her childhood , perishes too in her service . He is sent after the betrothment of his lady to Macbeth , an errand of danger , to carry letters from Gruach and her lover , and , attacked by foes upon his return , is brought home mortally wounded by a knight , who arrived just in time to save him from instant death at the hands of his assailants . But Grym bears the letter from Macbeth , and Gruoch takes it , blood-stained , from his breast , and even while Grym is dying , the sunshine of lier new hopes , and the glow of her awakened love , dispel the passing shadow of his fate .
The knight who brought back the wounded Grym is Cullen , the former page , who , prompted by love for his mistress and tbe infection of her bold spirit , left the castle to become a soldier , and returns a knight , to find - that he has no place in her heart , no memory amid her affection , but for the knowledge of how the knight disguises himself to be again her servitor , so that he may be near her , and how at last he lays down his life to shield her and her child , and how ill ho is requited .
We must refer our readers to the book itself , where , too , they will find how the lad y wedded Macbeth , and spurred on his ambition and rejoiced in his triumph , down to the time when Shakespeare ' s drama opens , for Mrs . ^ Clarke leaves the lady Macbeth at that point . When a letter is placed in her hands by a trusty envoy from her lord , wherein she reads words of wondrous import , that kindle into flame the smouldering fire of her thought .
Her self-communing upon this perusal , begins in these words of apostrophe to her lord : — " Glamis thou art , and Cawdor ; and Bhalt be What thou art promis'd . " And for herself Mrs . Clark modestly says : — " But that' our will "became the servant to defect , ' the above should be prologue to the swelling act of the imperial theme . '" We hope we have done enough to recommend this little book to the hearts of the lovers of Shakspeare , and shall wait for Mrs . Clarke ' s next effort , in order to continue our notices of the series .
The Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges : with General Inquiries on Beams and on the Properties of Materials used in Construction . By Edwin Clark , Eesident Engineer . London : Weale . The Chester and Holyhead Railway was designed to consolidate the " union" of Great Britain and Ireland ( and to pay a dividend to the shareholders ) by shorteuing the time between London and Dublin ; and , like the Union itself , it has had to contend with a series of natural and man-made difficulties .
The mountains of Wales , the river Conway , the Menai Straits , the owners of the land , the navigators of the water , opposed themselves to its construction ; while the government offices of Admiralty and Woods and Forests added to the troubles . Difficulties began from its leaving Chester , not to ceaBe till the Menai was crossed , or rather till the railway reached its final destination—Holyhead . A series of works of unrivalled magnitude characterises its whole length of eighty-four miles and a half . It emerges from Chester through a tunnel in tbe red sand-stone 405 yards in length ; a viaduct
of forty-five arches leads to the bridge by which it crosses the Dee . Following the embanked channel of this river and the level shores of its estuary , it crosses the river Foryd by a pile and swing bridge , and continues its course along tbe shore through the Bbyddlan Marshes , and through the limestone promontory of Fenmaen Bhos , by a tunnel 530 yards long , until stopped by the bold headlands of the Great and Little Orme ' s Head . It now for the first time leaves the coast , and , passing through the narrow vaHey that separates these headlands from the mainland , crosses the river Conway beneath the castle-walls , by means of tbe tubular bridge .
Passing through the town of Conway and under the walls by a tunnel ninety yards long , it again reaches the coast at the Conway Marshes , and continues its course along the shore through the greenstone and basaltic promontories of Penmaen Bach and Penmaen Mawr , the terminating spurB of the Snowdou range , by tunnels 630 and 220 yards long respectively ; being carried for some distance after leaving ^ Penmaen Mawr on a cast iron girder viaduct over the beach . Tbe sea-walls and defences , on the one hand , along this exposed coast , are all on a magnificant scale ; whilst , on the other , a timber gallery , similar to the avalanche galleries on the
Alpine roads , protects the road line from the debris that rolls down from the lofty and almost overhanging precipices above it . The Ogwen river and valley are then crossed by a stone viaduct 246 yards in length ; and between this and the Britannia Bridge the lino passes through three ridges of hills perforated by tunnels , 440 , 920 , and 726 yards in length , through Blate , greenstone , and primary sandstone ; the river Gegyn , with its beautiful valley , being crossed by a viaduct 132 yards long and fifty-seven feet high
The line thence continues rising to the level of the Britannia Bridge , and enterim ; Anglesey , passes across the Maldrneth Marsh , and through a tunnel , in . slate , rock , and clay , 550 yards in length . To enter the island of Holyhead , use is made , to a certain extent , of the embankment of the Holyhead . oad Commissioners , called " The Stanley Sands Embankment ; " for which the Company are required , as at Conway , to make a yearly payment to her Majesty ' s Commissionersof Woods and Forests . The amount in this case is £ 106 .
It is the object of tbe present volume to describe two of the most important works in this magnificent catalogue—the passage of the Conway River and of the Menai Straits . All the land difficulties could be overcome by money , or over-ridden by act of parliament . The water obstacles were not so manageable by mere outlay ; and the necessity for a free navigation , enforced by the Admiralty , interposed obstacles beyond what Nature herself had placed upon the passage . The essential difficulty to be encountered—a bridge of enormous span without intermediate supportwas much the same at the Menai Straits and
the Conway River . As the Menai Tubular Bridge , though the same in principle , and not very much more difficult to erect than the bridge across the Conway , more impresses the mind from the daringnes 3 of its conception , the dangerous-looking grandeur of its place , and its immense span , ithasexcited much public attention . We shall therefore confine our notice to that structure ; endeavouring to . present an idea of the difficulties encountered , the way in which they were overcome , some of the more striking facts elicited during the enterprise , and the gradual manner in which the conception grew in its author ' s mind , and was finally worked out by reasoning and experiment into a practical form .
The Menai Strait , which separates the island of Anglesey from the mainland ot Wales , is about eleven mileB and a half long , with a width of water-way varying from about 1 , 000 feet to three quarters of a mile . A tortuous course , extensive sandbanks at either end , and numerous rocks or groups of rocks , render the navigation difficult . This difficulty is further increased by a tidal peculiarity , that causes violent and baffling currents ; for the main tidal wave , as it advances northward up the Irish Channel , branches off into the Menai Straits over the sandbanks of .
Carnarvon Bay , and arrives in Beaumaris Bay at the other end of the Straits before the main tidal wave has completed the circuit of the island . As soon , however , as the main tidal wave enterB Beanmaris Bay , it repels the current that has set in from Carnarvon , and the tide flows into the Straits in opposite directions . This meeting of tbe waters gradually Tetires before the Beaumaris wave , i-nd arrives at the Britannia Bridge about twenty mmntes before high water there ; so that the tide continues to flow , or the water to rise , twenty
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S " S ^^ H& !* god its direr tan ?* aM ^?^ Stoits ^ oWver . ' so imporn aVddinJ th « ° fdi 8 tance is s 0 c ° ™ derable saSSw ^ &SBS auujtner slate quarries among tne Carnarvon ' . JL * fIw ? * ° ^ peculiarities of the S 3 S the tubular p ^ P ™ - ^ Su-l e P ^ n SeDt 8 tructure erected , arid an £ HifioataHfBotanew feature coSSn ° eDgineerin e architectol
susnenln S ' 1826 ' threwhis celebrat (? d ZSS " bndge across the Menai Straits , he selected the [ narrowest part for the site . On S ™*! ?? ' Ste P «* . ^ 1840 , it was pipposed to use a portion of this suspensionbridge for the pa 8 Sage of the trains ; dividing them , and employing horse power for the transit . The Woods and Forests nominally consented to a partial use ' of the bridge , but with a clause which rendered their consent nugatory . Objections were also made by other parties to the proposed line . A deviation was accordingly ordered bthe directorsand it
y , was finall y determined to cross at the Britannia Rock . This rock emerges as nearly as possible in the centre of the Straits ; it is 350 feet long , 120 broad , and rises eleven feet above low-water lev ^ l . The idea of a suspension bridge was . abandoned by Mr . Stephenson , because he- intended to cross by locomotives , and m « ia ] tfonn of structure there is , he says in his evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons , " a difficulty in keeping the platform steady : when the train went on to the Stockton and Darlington line , the rails rose up three feet in front of the engine ; they were unable to use it . "
The first plan for crossing the Menai Straits was to erect a gigantic pier on the Britannia Rock across its entire width , and two other piers ( instead of the usual abutments ) rising from low-water mark of spring-tide on either side of the Strait . These three piers were to be fifty-five feet above spring-tide , and to be connected by two cast-iron arches of 360 feet span , the centres of which were to be fifty feet above the piers , and 105 feet above high water As centering to support the arches while in the course of erection , would interfere
with the navigation , and would , at the Menai Straits be objectionable , on account of the expense , Mr . Stephenson determined upon a modification of a plan of Sir Isambard Brunei . "The erection of the arch was to be proceeded with by placing equal and corresponding voussoirs on opposite sides of the pier , at the same thro tying them together by horizontal tie-bolts ; " a distinct idea of which principle the reader can form , by passing a skewer through a couple of apples , vesting the skewer
on the top of a book standing upright , and pressing the apples close to the volume . No sooner , however , was his plan of the bridges made known , than it was opposed by all the interests connected with the navigation of the Straits . "Various hindrances and evils were predicted ; but they were subs tantially resolved into the diminution of head-way and waterway , from the low : springing of the arches , and the occupation of the Britannia Kock by the central pier . '
Eight or wrong , the navigation interests triumphed . '; The entire width of the rock was not to be occupied ( the actual size of the tower is about sixty feet by fifty ) , and a clear headway of 100 feet along the whole . span was peremptorily insisted on by the Admiralty . Thus , everything had to be begun again , and Mr . Stephenson was thrown back upon original principles , at least as far as regards extent and structure . In 1841 ho had made a design , for a wrought-iron bridge of fifty feet- span , for carrying a common road over the river Lea , in which the conditions
only admitted of a platform eighteen or twenty inches in thickness . This bridge was not erected in conformity with the design , but Mr . Stephenson now recurred to it ; rejecting various suggestions that were made to him , or rather fusing them all into his own plan . The object Bought was a straight stiff road-way , one end resting on the Welsh , the other on the Anglesey shore , and the middle , or middle ends , supported on a pier built on the Britannia Rock ; a petty example of which ' is seen daily ^ in a plank-bridge over a brook . In practice , however , such a road-way could not
be attained ; a solid body of that length would , break by its own weight , every addition to its strength increasing , so to speak , its weakness ; it would vibrate more or lesB ; and if people would have trusted themselves on such an open platform , parliament would not have passed the bill—though they are as safe , probably , without as with the seeming protection , since none of the walls of bridge or viaduct , anywhere , could resist the weight of a , train if it got off the rails . Sides of some kind .
therefore , as well as a top , are absolutely no cessary , for they give stiffness and strength to a lighter bottom . Arches not being permitted , the suspension bridge being rejected , and a solid beam being impossible , a tube whether in the form of a pipe or an oblong box became imperative . The combination of the self-supporting principle with suspension b y chains was indeed pressed upon Mr . Stephenson , and he started with the idea of using them as part of the process of erection ; but they were finally discarded altogether .
About the practicability of the plan Mr . Stephenson seems never to have entertained a doubt , after the idea had once been formed in his mind , If sometimes he was appalled at the responsibility , "reflection satisfied" him "that the principles on which the idea was founded were nothing more than an extension of those daily in use in the profession of the engineer . " The directors of the company were equally , or even more confideut than himself , and they seem to have given him almost carte blanche : but the world
was not so confiding . The Committee of the House of Commons was incredulit y itself . When the 'first general experiments , though really successful , became known , the scientific world were as sceptical : Everybody had some doubts and fears to be overcome ; dismal warnings came in on all hands , suggeBtmg every imaginableapprehe . nBion ; and Mr . Stephenson appeared at times disheartened when he withdrew , aa was hia daily custom , to giveiustructwns on the subject , and to . delibarate on the weighty difficulties that bad to be encountered in his undertaking . Very few are . aware of the . painful anxiety that falls to the lot of the engineer in circumstances of euch . deep , responsibility ; he can be satisfied with no uncertainty or doubt—and what other foundations were possible ?
Destruction by its own weight " was prophesied by some of the most eminent mathematicians and greatest mechanics . With feuexceptions , scientific men generally either remained neutral , or ominously shook their heads and hoped for the best , " Even Mr . Edwin Clark himself , when he went down to superintend the co mmencement of the works , could not refrain from sending to his anxious chief a littlo of Job ' s comfort . He writes— " It is a fearful span when looking at it on the spot . " But to return to the narrative . In the
experiments instituted to test the practicability of the conception , three objects were to be kept in view , —strength , form , and proportion . The farst series of experiments was made on circular tubes , the next on oval , the third on rectangular . The tube having been formed , was supported a t either end just as the bridge would bo ; a perforation was made in the bottom , midway between the supports , and a suspension-link sustained by a cross-bar of wood inside the tube upheld a frame-work charged with weights , continually , increased till the tube gave way in some part . The experiments
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upon the tubes were thirty-fourin number ; twelve of which were made on circular tubes ' seven on oval , ; and fifteen on rectangular . 'The result was to establish the fact that rectangular tubes were the strongest , and that the top is the greatest source of strength . In the - whole of the 3 e , " says Mr . Stephenson ' a report tojthe directors , f this remarkable and unexpected fact . was . brought to light , viz ., thatinsuob tubes the power of wrbught-iron to resist compression was muoh less than its power to resist tension , oeing exactly the reverse of that which holds with cast-iron : for example , in cast-iron beams fir sustaining weight , the proper form is to dispose of the greater portion of the material at the bottom side
nori : T wnereas fflth drought-iron , these experiments demonstrate , beyond any doubt , that tlie greater portion of the material ahould be distributed the 5 TV' *? ? V ? be ' hilVe »™ . hevefore at . a fact haying a most important bearl ing upon the construction of the tubes , viz ., that rigidity and strength are beBt obtained by khrowin * side " * 1651 thlcknes 8 of material into tho upper The experiments , though highly satisfactory in establishing the correctness of the principle , could not he considered conclusive as regarded the best mode
of reducing it to practice . An exact model of the intended bridge was therefore constructed , and it was placed in a positwm B » mlar to that of tho intended bridge , bix different experiments were made upon it ; the fractures being repaired as they occurred , ( for wtoch wrought-iron affords great facilities , ) and the weak points thus developed being of course strengthened . The third experiment , however , was decisive , since the model itself would have borne a loaded train .
. The result of the last experiment illustrated the importance of the pillars in the aides , as , with an addition of only two hundredwei ght to the Weight of the tube , the top and bottom remaiaed precisely the same as before , while breaking-weight was increased from 43 tons to nearly 5 ( 5-5 tons , or more than ten times its own weight . This thin model , therefore was capable , of carrying 113 tons equally distributed over it ; and was of itself sufficient for railway traffic , as the weight of a line of locomotives upon it would only be 75 tons . Thus a wrought-iron tubular bridge , made of plates riveted together , was decided on ; and nothing now remained but the construction of the bridges , the floating of them from their place of manufacture on the shore to
their place on the stone piers or towers , and raising them b y means of h ydraulic machinery from high-water mark to their position in the Menai Bridge , 100 feet above it . All these processes are described minutely in Mr . Clark ' s volumes . The account of the construction is curious , from the magnitude of the work and the machinery requisite to carry it on , as well as from the importance of thoroughly good workmanship in every part . It has not , however , the intorest involved in the discovery of anew principle and the gradual experiments by which that principle is tested and applied . Neither has the constructive part the breathless feeling attached to the struggle with , and controulofthe
, ocean , the military precision of the preparations , and the instant obedience to one master will , that distinguish tho floating and placing of tbe Tubular Brid ges . Neither does it so fill the mind with wouder , as the rtiisingsuchimmense and unwield ymasses into midair by the simple process of forcing water into a cylinder , which raises a ram , which raises whatever is placed upon it . The floating arid plucing of the tubes was described in the newspapers , with ample minuteness . There are incidental passages , however , which are interesting in themselves , and also indicate the kind of interest attaching to the more popular sections of Mr . Clark ' s book : of them we will quote a few .
# Magnitude , one of tho sources of the sublime , is the great feature of the undertaking . It is the magnitude of the s pan that caused the doubt of the ' practicability of the bridge ; it is the magnitude of its suspended height that impresses the mind of the spectator or reader , -rfbr the principle is the same whether it were raised ten feet or a hundred . Everything was correspondingly , great , down to the men and materials . These are some of the statistics : —
Three steam-engines were employed for raising the stones of the towers and , abutments , with 2 G travelling-cranes over . different parts of the work , simultaneously engaged in transporting and setting them ; 2 , 177 cargoes of stone , and other materials were discharged for the masonry alone . Tho stones were worked on the shore on either side of the Straits . From 500 to 600 men were constantly employed in the erection of the towers , besides 300 or 400 men occupied in the quarries , and in bringing the stones to tho Straits . °
The whole quantity of timber employed in the acafloldings for the masonry was . 175 , 000 cubic feet , nao / nr ^ construction of the land tubes lia , < ttUfcet . The platforms on whicli the laree tubes \ yere constructed contained also 110 , 105 cubic feet ; the total quantity of timber employed as Rcaffolding for the whole bridge being thus 403 , 335 I 66 t * * ' * * Groat precautions were taken to preserve tbe scaffolding from fire ; to which the number of redhot rivets constantly thrown about continually exposed the scaffolding for the land-tubes , which on several occasions actually took fire . The means at command for extinguishing it were , however , so complete , that it was on all occasions immediately
and easily subdued , or the consequences would have buen most serious , as the tubes themselves would inevitably have been destroyed , having no other support during their cons-truction . To avoid such a disaster , two fire-engines were constantly on the spot in working order ; and tankB containing 8 , 000 gallons of water were ereuted on the scaffoldings at either abutment , with cast-iron pipes leading to all parts of the Bcaffolding . Gangways were also constructed beneath the flooring ; and pliable hose , ready for attachment at any portion of tho structure , afforded ready means of deluging any part of the platforms with water . The water was pumped into the tanks from cisterns , which were supplied from land-springs in the neighbourhood , constantly flowing into them in wooden channels for that
purpose . As everything was unprecedented , suspense , one of the most powerful sources of interest , is frequently at work . It was a trying operation to remove the scaffolding that supported the tubes during their construction , and the moment arrived to prove whether they would even bear their own weight . On the 16 th of January , the operation of cutting away the platform wa 3 commenced , and occupied ton days of intense anxiety . * * * After
driving the wedges , and further removing the platform , as the tube descended and compressed the remainder of the timber , tho difficulty of extracting it became greater and greater , and the timbers were cut out piecemeal . They became at length so compressed that great difficulty was experienced even in this operation . A hole drilled with an augur was immediately filled up by tho pressure , so that it was impossible to bore to any depth ; and great labour was required to splinter svway the timber in small fragments .
The descent of the tube from its own weight was watched constantly with the greatest anxiety , as the operation proceeded at length night and day . The great problem was now being solved . Many had predicted a deflection of two or three feet , and a great number of hi ^ h authorities had affirmed that the tube could not support its own weight ; while others foretold the buckling of the top , distortion of the sides , and crushing of the extremities . Every phenomenon was therefore watched with intense
inwrest aB the tube descended inch b y inch . The crashing of the timber , moreover , at times , as it broke away under the strain , alarmed the men who were working beneath , and it was necessary to be continually present with them to keep them at their post . Mr . Stephenson , however , awaited theresult with confidence , though not unmingled with deep anxiety , as the results of the operations from day to day were forwarded to him by the author . By the 24 tli of January , the bulk of the platform was removed , and the tube had descended at the centre
G * inches . Tho pressure on the remaining props was estimated then at about ten tons per foot , the longitudinal balks being nearly destroyed by the weight . * . * All fears , however , were at an end on the 25 th , when the whole platform was cleared awny , and the tube took its own weigbtfrora end to end , with a deflection of 7 £ inches , being one-eighth less than had been calculated upon . The first emotions on reflecting on this magnificent solution of the problem which had induced so much care and apprehension , were inexpressibh excitinjr ; and though the novelty has ceased no stranger can stand ieneath this stupendous beam tapered off , as it appears , by its vast perspective ' . without feelings of intense astonishment . ' There ^ tffl remained . the test of what weight
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the tube would bear , besides its own ; and the trial was attended with a curious example of atmospheric influence . The testing of the tuba was now rapidly proceeded with . For this purpose rails were laid throughout the tube and platform . Ballast waggons were tken loaded with iron plates and drawn into the centre of the tube . The first twenty tons increased tho deflection by one-eighth of an inch , and with fifty tons tho deflexion ; as read by lamplight , was 9 inches . This weight was left in all night , and the . deflection in the morning was only 8 * inches . This was . jittributed , at the time , to some error w the rea . ling ; but this , and many other anomalies in tho deflection , were afterwards fully accounted for by local changes of temperature . A gleam of sunshine on the top of the tube raised it , on one occasion nearly an inch in half an hour , with 200 tons at the centre : the ton nlato « hpini
expanded by increase of temperature , while the lower plates remained constant from radiation to tho watoi- immediately beneath them . In a similar manner the tube was drawn sidewise , to the extent of an inch , from the sun shining on one side , and returned immediately as clouds passed over the sun ; being , in fact , a most delicate thcrmomoter m constant motion , both laterally and vertically . The effect of the wind had also excited great forebodings in most minds , excepting Mr . Stephenson ' s ; but its influence seems to bo less than that of the sun . In such an extension of tho theory of tlie beams as was involved in the construction of these bridges , nf 5 ST ? P erative to inquire into every property of such structures , lest any phenomenon hir . Uta he
ri t o" ? m £ f ^ ™ > sho » ld n ™ » P *» f ««•» S ? h porta " Jf and incre ! V 8 e in a ° me high ^ fijp&zi zis sk SS&RffJws smsfe eany nistory of the bridges . tJE ; ^ F , honson a « ached , however , little importanco to these considerations ; deputing on the great wcinhi of the structure itself , for oViaS any danger irom impact , and on tho fitful natureo ° f gusts of wmd , ns affording no apprehension of con-JT ^ v . hmi 0 ll , motion - D " ' '"? t' : e violent gales of February last-the heaviest that have oc-2 inl . "" l Jfflri- | lie tubc 9 »«•« but little affected , although one of them was resting at each S ? n ° « ftea Flle ° f l 008 ° planks ' and afc an Nation ol 100 feet , and was neither connected , lateraly nor longitudinally , with tho noiffhhmivi ™
tunes , which must nearly quadruple its lateral strength : its lateral motion amounted , under these circumstances , to about 1 } inohes . The blow struck KM ? , " 1 * simu " « eo « s throughout tho length of the tube , but impinged locally , and at unequal intervals , on all parts of the length which presented a broadside to the gale . Ii . vraa impracticable to pass along the top of the tube , except by clinging to tho winward edge ; » nd oven in this position the fitful nature of the gusts wa 3 disagreeably perplexing The sale was divfiVfml from ita
horizontal course , and , descending obliquely into the water below , ploughed it up in clouds of spray for some distance from tho tube . Tho maximum vioration did not occur during the greatest violence ot the wind , but at the momentary lulls , when the tube , partially returning to its normal shape from its own elasticity , was again met by the succeeding wave , lno tube , however , on no occasion attained any serious oscillation , but appeared to some extent permanently sustained in a state of lateral drflection , without time to oscillate in the opposite direction . Tho impact from the passage of an ordinary train must , of course , be incomparable in effect with the blow of such a hurricane , on a surface of 13000 square feet in one span .
The expense of the preliminary experiments was altogether £ 0 , 350 ; a " great cost , " Mr Clark terms it , but surely money well laid out . The total cost of the Conway Bridge was £ 145 , 000 ; that of the unfinished Britannia Bridge , as near as it could be ascer . tained at the time Mr . Clark was writing , was about £ 000 , 000 .
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Fusetites are no * called "Brummagem Catho « llCSt Provehbial Philosophy . — Drinking ale as medicine , and denouncing it as a beverage ! It is generally conceded , nonr-a-days , that ti makes the very best of belle metal . Mr . James having exhausted tho language iti giving titles to his numerous productions , is now publishing- " A story without a name . " Adding Insult io Injur * . - The tax-gatherer calling upon a blind person for the payment of the Window-1 ax . —Punch . '
Pythagoras gave this excellent precept : — Ohoosealwaystheway that seems the best , however rongh it may be . Custom will render it easy and agreeable . ' . " You look rather flat , " said the tea-kettle to the pan-cake . " I would take that as an insult , " said the pan-cake , " but I am aware that you have been steaming it . " Too Mucn reading and too little ' meditation produces the effects of a lamp inverted , which is extinguished by an excess of the very element that is meant to feed it . " C 9 MB 11 ERE , my dear ; I want toask you all about h !! n 5 " « v " - T - tel 1 me t ru'y-has sh es ° ta beau ? - " -No , its the jaundice she ' s got-the doctor sQys so * JuEFt Is like *! ' ^ king B l > wbich < wllen once suited by an unwholesomo breath , may be wiped clean again ; but if once it is cracked it is aevwto be repaired .
An Empty HEAD .-Dawkter , dawkter , " said an exquisite the other day , "I want you to tell me what I can get to put in my head to make it right ?" - It wants nothing but brains , " said the gentleman or functions . In what two cases are precisely the same means used for directly opposite purposes ? Bars are put on bank windows to keep thieves out , and on gaol windows to keep them in . To Prbseuvb Life and Health . — The theory ind practice of Dr ; Gheyne was- " The slightest ana least ot meats and drinks a person can he tolerably easy under , is the shortest and most infallible means to preserve life , health , and serenity . "
A Iuss by Tkleokaph .-A man was found at Wanwell the other day , mounted on a ladder , with his lips pressed to the telegraph wires . He was kissing his wife in Reading "by ttl . « raff . " It was afterwards found that he was a newly-married man , . Expressive Eyes .- " Do you find my eyes expressive of my feelings ? " said a sentimental lover to a lady he desired to please . ' « Oh , yes , I presume so , " said the lady j "they make me think of a codfish dying with ihe tooth-ache !" Population of Aukbica . - The census now taking in the United States exhibits an unparalleled increase of population and national prosperity . When concluded , it is expected to exhibit the former ac 25 , 000 , 000 , though only 17 , 000 , 000 ten years back .
Emigkants are now carried to New York , from this port , at the extraordinary low rate of £ 2 per head . After deducting the cost of provisions , &c , the consignees of the vessel have only about 15 s . per head left to pay all the expenses of vessel , Ac—Liverpool Standard . Polite , but Slow . —A stutterinj ; Vermonter was asked the wsy ta Waterbury . With great politeness he strove to say it was right ahead , but in vain . Ihe more he tried the move he couldn't . At last , red in the face , and furious with unavailable exertion , he burst forth with , " UiiK-eue-eo-lonL '! darn
ye ! you 11 gig-gi-get there afore I can tell ye !" A boaster punishkd . -A wealthy , popular , and fastyoung gentleman once boasted , that he could walk home with any one of the members of a certain division ot the daughters of temperance from church . Accordingly , after service was over on the Subbath , he spruced up to a fair damsel , and with a polite bowtendered his arm . The young lady instinctively drew back as from a serpent , and exclaimed— " No , Bir , IU never put my arm through another jug-handle asiongasllive !" Coals . —Of the three million fons and upwards of coals annually consumed iu the Metropolis , about eleven-twelfths are supplied by tho collierie s of Durhatuand Northumberland . The ships actually employed in bringing coals from the North are about 2 , 700 , with eight men to a ship , and an averaec cargo of nearly 300 tons . In 1848 there were 2 , tl 7 shitia employed , which brought to London 12 , 269 carcoes , amounting to 3 , 418 , 310 tons .
Female Bachelors . -Oberlin College , in the United States , has lately awarded diplomas to eight young ladies , one coloured . The degree of A B . Z th ° " t of A M ° " deVe - gentlcmen and one lad *' Thtp 1 fi M ' Upon , mue B ^ eman and one lady SSopuS mea and ^ ° la ( li 8 s completed the theological course ; and it is stated that one of the latter expects to " devote herself to pulpit-labouts . " nnlr a i - ° FlNDERs 0 F ANII < l u mw .-Most antiquarian objects are covered with rust-articles of rrnl / 1 1 "Oi *—ui blUlCS UL
>« .. alone ,, ' | . !> in unchanged . Silver usually assumes a blackish tume . Bronze and copper in peat hogs exhibit a mfor blackise tint ; while in tne earth they become green . Iron is always very much corroiled ,. excej . t in peat bogs . Lead also is oxidised ; amber becomes like resin ; anil i ; lass lookg like mother-of-pearl by laying in the earth . Bones become black or brown in begs , where they arc j lways best preserved . Antiqu . ties should never bi cleaned , as they are thereby almoitalways injarcri . S-. ill more , should the finders be careful hot to freak theai , whiclugnorant people often do in their eageriiesi to see if they are gold . , . .
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Feb. 1, 1851, page 3, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1611/page/3/
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