On this page
-
Text (4)
- Untitled
-
In an earlier series of letters on " Soc...
-
ON THE CULTIVATION OP FLAX * VII. Fob so...
-
* Vide Loader , Nob. 110,112,113, 114, 1...
Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
-
Transcript
-
Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
Additionally, when viewing full transcripts, extracted text may not be in the same order as the original document.
Ar01505
In An Earlier Series Of Letters On " Soc...
In an earlier series of letters on " Social Reform , ' I briefly commented upon the struggle within the early Christian Church , between the principles of communis m and individualism . It is now my intention to trace the development of the social idea during the middle ages , and its influence on Euroi > ean civilization . The fourteenth century is distinguished by the rise and development of unmonastie associations in Germany and the Netherlands , an unmistakable sign of the decay of monachism . The r _egular succession of new orders and their
decline , leading to the establishment of others , marks the whole history of monachism , and was at no period more * _-emarkable than from the eleventh to the fourteenth century , when there appe ared , one after the other , five new orders , all seeking to restore the ancient severity of monastic discipline . The expediency of having so many different orders becoming doubtful , Pope
Innocent III . forbade the establishment of any new one . But , scarcely had this prohibition been issued , when the popes saw occasion to suspend its operation , in favour of a new form of monachism , which promised to be useful to the Papal power . The monks , hitherto , had been considered in the light of penitents , renouncing all communication with the world . But this
mode of life had now become suspicious , and men had learned to value a different kind of apostolic life and usefulness . The first of these new orders was founded by Francis of _Assisi , who , in the year 1207 , began to gather a fraternity around him , and introduced among them a truly apostolic life of self-denial and activity . The fanatical veneration of the Franciscans for their founder ( Peter Seraphicus ) led them to believe that his life was an accurate copy of that of Jesus , and to apply to him certain prophecies . Thus arose among the Franciscans an Apocalyptic party , who not only declared the Church to
be entirely corrupt , but considered the whole work of Christ to have been only a preparation for a more perfect revelation of the Holy Ghost . At their head was Peter John Olivi , ( a . d . 1297 , ) who , by his commentary on the Apocalypse , and his bitter censures on the Popes , raised the fanatical hopes of his party , and gained many followers . The divisions of thc Franciscans ended in the establishment of a separate fraternity , the Cclestine Eremites ; but they were broken up by Boniface VIII ., ( a . d . 1302 , ) and their members persecuted as heretics ; which led , eventually , to then- entire separation from the order and tho Church .
Whilst the hierarch y wero thus involved in a constant struggle for temporal power , the limit of free in quiry was more and more narrowed _Jis the church system was developed , and its disci plinary powers perverted from their original character . The opposition to the Church became general . While Tanchelm in tho Netherlands , and Euda de Stella in Bretagne and Gascony , were inflaming the minds of tho people , two ecclesiastics in tho south of France , Peter de _Bruis and Henry , began to declaim most zealousl y against tho machinery of tho Church ,
and the corruption of tho clergy . Like Peter and Henry , Peter Waldensis of Lyons , with a number of followers , ( a . d . 1170 ) began to preach the Gospel after tbe manner of tho primitive apostles , and they afterwards separated themselves entirel y from the Church . Tho sanguinary measures taken against the heretics only confirmed them in their convictions , and drove them to seek refuge in otber countries , whero they secretly continued to dissominato their doctrines in spite <) the violent inquisitorial persecutions to which
all the unmonastie associations were exposed . In the Netherlands , and in Germany , great progress was also made by the Alexiani , or Eratres CclliUe , ?•¦ ailed Lillian Is or Beghards by the people , who m « associated themselves in Antwerp soon after " > oyear 1300 for tho care of the sick and tho dead . lu proportion as the papal power became _irro"iMtible , the heretical , parties assumed more and » _•<¦¦» . _jieici . _ieiM . _uiil'UW ) UHMUIUCU _UlOrC IttlU
! 'l (> , ' , ! ' - 'io character of fanaticism , and sought to ll y the foundations of their religious faith with-J _>» t the Church . Towards the end of the _four-J'oontli century , three of tho Bohemian clergy , _^ <> nr ; va Stieleim , John Milicz , and _Mathian von iii _nojv , the precursors of _lluss , directed their « itluok- H against the mendicant orders , to whoso _"unionee they chiefly- ascribed the existing eor'PMon And in _England thoro now appearod «' oim Wiebffe , a Fellow of Morton Collogo , Ox-
In An Earlier Series Of Letters On " Soc...
ford , who , favoured on the one hand by the indignation of the people against the papal power , and on the other , by the mistrust of the government , instituted an impartial examination into the customs and doctrines of the Church of Home . He first came forward in the controversies of the University with the mendicant orders , and fearlessl proclaimed their corruption . While these violent dissensions were raging in the Church , a great social movement declared itself throughout Europe . The common people ,
who were in the most abject and miserable condition , simultaneously rose against their oppressors ; and while the religious Reformers denounced the corruption of the clergy , the popular leaders incited their followers to rebel against the insufferable tyranny of the privileged orders . Two things materially Contributed to the success of this great social revolution , —the resistance of the Commons to the feudal system , and the concentration of the executive power in the Crown . I remain , yours faithfully , William Coningham . Kemp Town , August 12 th .
On The Cultivation Op Flax * Vii. Fob So...
ON THE CULTIVATION OP FLAX * VII . Fob some weeks past , the pressure of important news has not permitted us to revert at length to this subject , but we have not spent our vacation in idleness . Determined to give our readers the means of judging for themselves as to the respective merits of the various systems of preparing the fibre , and mistrusting the entire accuracy of the published analyses of this plant , we have instituted a series of experiments ( 12 in number ) , and the result appears to fortify us in the opinion we had previously expressed , that the present methods
of preparation are highly wasteful and intensely slovenly . We have advocated the " dry" preparation because it is the only one which enables us to make use of the " refuse" of the flax plant . The value of this refuse had not , we believe , been hitherto ascertained , and we claim the credit of being the first to advance proof , satisfactory to the scientific agriculturist , that there is no portion of the flax plant which is not highly valuable to the feeder of stock , and that he who will persist in saving nothing but the seed and the fibre has no right to complain of the gradual deterioration of his hind . Carbon . H _J _^ f" Oxygen . Salts . 60 Parts of pure fibre contain 1790 500 3640 0 70 CO „ iibro with gum „ 2150 675 3175 100 60 „ gum resin „ 2200 470 3000 330 60 „ wood with gum ,, 3862 333 1654 151 60 „ liuseed ,, 2025 6 _" 66 23 59 000 CO „ Boed capsules ,, 24-37 4-25 3078 060 The salts consist of chlorides , sulphates , and carbonate of potassium calcium , with traces of silieic acid , hut neither alumina , magnesia , nor iron , were detected , although they have been said to exist in other specimens . The theory , therefore , that pure fibre is derived almost entirely from the atmosphere is again confirmed , its well as the additional fact that the wood and gum of the ilax plant , in their natural state , are highly valuable , either as a vehicle for linseed , or to enter into any other compound for cattle , of which straw or hay-chaff forms a part . It will follow that all other portions of the plant being used on the farm , tho salts carried off in the pure fibre may bo readily restored to tho land at an in « onsiderahle cost . Two bushels of soot and one bushel of
bone-dust per aero being in truth sufficient to replace the inorganic matter extracted from the soil . Further experiments tend to show that about 33 per cent , of tho plant consists of iibro with tho gum attached , or about 20 per cent , of pure fibre , so that llax sleepers , who obtain on tho average hut 12 \ por cent ., and take credit for the improvements which have led to this result , literally sacrifice 7 \ lbs . of fibre out of every 100 lbs . of straw , or at least 300 lbs . on every acre grown !
After this further explanation of tho real character of the plant under discussion , our readers will bo prepared for our recommendation that the llax crop should ho harvested as carefully as if it were ho much wheattho seed destined for an agricultural hIiow , and the straws wherewith to imbibe { -. berry Cobbler in thc dogdays . This is no very difficult matter with a little attention . Tho first consideration is tho maturity of the plant , which may be said to be sufficientl y perfect as soon as the needs assume a brown tinge , and the _ataUm become yellow nearly to tho top . Then select n fine dry day for tho operation of pulling the crop , which ia thus performed -. the puller seises a good handful of the flax with ono hand just lielow tho seed branches , und
On The Cultivation Op Flax * Vii. Fob So...
pressing the other hand upon it , lifts it from the soil and lays it behind him—each succeeding handful being placed roots and heads alternately , to prevent the entangling of the seed-bolls . Great care should bo taken to keep the root ends even , the value of which precaution will be felt hereafter . If any of the crop be laid by the rain , it should be first pulled and set carefully aside . If the ground be not perfectly level , or should the drainage of the field be unequal or "deficient , a portion of the crop will run short in length , and this maybe cleared off after the first pulling , and kept by itself —evenness of length being a great desideratum in
flax . After the pullers- children follow to set up the crop for drying . This is generally done by ranging the handfuls directly opposite each other in the form of the letter A , but we have found the following to be a useful modification of this system . As soon as a certain breadth has been pulled , place a couple of forked sticks , about 2 | feet long , into the ground , about 10 feet apart , and lay a hazel rod from fork to fork . Then set up a handful of flax as pulled on one side , taking care to spread the root ends well out in the form of a fan , and
another handful next to it on the other side of the rod , and so on until it is full . This will effectually prevent all rough usage to the seed capsules , and greatly facilitate the after operations of turning . The whole crop being thus set up , stick an ugly noisy boy to scare away the birds from the linseed , and see that he makes good use of his lungs and feet . Like Sir Boyle Roche ' s bird , he should be in two places at once , and never suffer a sparrow to approacli the crop , under pain of loss of his beer .
An active man , with a couple of children to hand him the hunches , will set up an acre of flax per day . After the crop has thus laid for three days turn the handfuls on the rods , so that every portion should dry of an even colour . In six or eight days from the day of pulling , if the weather be favourable , the crop will be ready for stacking , but previously to this being done , the seed , which will then be fully matured , should be taken off . This is done by means of a " ripple , " which is simply a single or double row of iron teeth screwed into a block of hard wood , and fastened to the middle
of a six or eight foot plank , resting upon a couple of stools or cart supports , which will answer the purpose and save expense . The Royal Irish Flax Society , which , after all , is sometimes right , recommends the ripples to be made " of half-inch squave rods of iron , placed with th _^ ymg les of iron next the ripplers , three sixteenths of an inch asunder at the bottom , half an inch at the top , and eighteen inches long . The points should begin to taper three inches from the top . " It is in fact just like a comb , and is by far the most useful implement for taking off the seed capsules or " bolls . "
Two men sit facing each other on thc plank , with the comb between them , and a large sheet underneath to receive the " holts . " Children lay the handfuls of flax crossing each other , at the side of ench rippler , and they arc drawn through thc instrument until the bolls are off . One hand should he placed near the roots , and the other about eight inches from thc heads , and tho hands tightly clasped to preserve the evenness of the flax . The men strike the comb alternately , und soon get through the job . Freed from the seed , the . straw is then tied up in bundles about nine inches or a foot in diameter , and , when thoroug hl y dry , stacked and thatched like so much wheat . It will he all the bettor
if it is suffered to remain _stooked in the held , and the stooks occasionally turned , as long as the weather continues fair . Should rain take place , the building of tho stack must bo deferred , and the sheaves opened again and exposed to the sun as long as there be any suspicion of the slightest damp . The seed-bolls should remain in the field if the weather he line , and turned over by thc " bird keeper " from time to time . If rainy , remove them to tho barn floor , and give them as much light and air as possible . If intended for sale , tho seed may be thrashed out and the husks preserved for feeding stock , but if the farmer means , as ho _ought , to use it at home , there is no necessity for any thrashing . Tho bolls may lie ground down in their whole state , and given to tho
stock in the form we shall prescribe in a future paper . Here let us pause to consider and admire the practice of tho peasantry in the sister isle in the eases of their linseed . On the 2 {) fh of Nov <; i » ibcr , 1851 , tho Marquis of _Downshiro ( the nobleman whei is _reporteel to have recommended his tenants lo substitute iron for wooden ploughs , because they woulel lust for ever , and make capital horseshoes afterwards !) , to whom a monument should , nevertheless , he erected for ho boldly exposing the ignorance , not of the peasantry , but of those who should direct them to better things , staled that , in tho course of a tour , he found the high roads " covered with hales if flax , " in tho expectation lhat the passing carts and horses would save the trouble of beating out the seed ; and added , " if I had only « , wish to mako a
* Vide Loader , Nob. 110,112,113, 114, 1...
* Vide Loader , Nob . 110 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 124 .
-
-
Citation
-
Leader (1850-1860), Aug. 21, 1852, page 15, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/l/issues/cld_21081852/page/15/
-