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ffmwx iHobements
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"And I will-war, at least in words, (And...
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, ITALY, ATJSTRIA..AXD THE POPE, so. in....
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* So obscure, in fact, that the Aulie Co...
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Night Ascesi of Mn. Greex, IS HIS BalIOON, with FmEwonns, from Vaoxhall Gardens.—On
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Monday night this celebrated aerial voya...
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-SSSSS?S^!!?* _ _
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TO THE' ED1T0E OP THE SORmEB.V STAR. Sin...
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. ap-ifliltiitt m mvtimltim
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FIELD-GAllDEN OPERATIONS. For the Week c...
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Duxo Mixess.—Behind the cow-house ' in t...
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LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Br Pk...
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• Pc; ° ¦ » •*. « . 3S 2 S tc-Sg j; s""5...
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"Wheat, you will observe, contains 15 pe...
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Mauomepax Pilgrims.—A letter from Algier...
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tjmie they. , ftj^j&iH bcjpu^ejgijn."i?/...
Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
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Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
Additionally, when viewing full transcripts, extracted text may not be in the same order as the original document.
Ffmwx Ihobements
ffmwx iHobements
"And I Will-War, At Least In Words, (And...
"And I will-war , at least in words , ( And—should ' roy chance so happen—deeds ) , With all who war witb Thought !" " I think I hear a little bird , who sings The people by aud by will be the stronger . "—Btbos
, Italy, Atjstria..Axd The Pope, So. In....
, ITALY , ATJSTRIA .. AXD THE POPE , so . in . press of matter last week pi-evented us continuing jlr . JLizmi's revelations of the state of Italy : wc jiow return to the subject . Having disposed of the educational part of the inquiry , " Air . Mazzixi next takes up the financial and com mercial state of Vcnctiaii-Loiubavdy . We must refer our readers to the pamphlet for tlie tables and official statements cited by Mr . ^ iAzzixr . The following extract affords a glimpse of the financial and eoniuiereial wrongs suffered by Italy at tlie hands of ] icr chief oppressor : —
I say once more , the sun , theclimate ,-the extraordinary fatuity of the soil , the intelligent , active , awl victorious genius of the Lombard people , struggle in our favour . Some reforms which the revolution bestowed , and which ihe restoration could not take away , twenty-nine years of peace , aud the natural progress of tilings , help lhestruggle ia its slow success ; hut 1 say tliat wherever the baud of Cov enimi-ntis seen , there also is to be found an obstacle ajul a hindrance . 'Ihe hand of Oic Austrian Gotemment is to be seen in the enormous import duty ou colonial project ? , on -aims and spirits , upon shins idtLcr raw or dressed , on spun cotton , Sit ., which creates tlie contrahand trade , and rains jftlaii , the great emporium for the merchandise of tlie country , by ordering , matters so that similar articles cost less in those provinces which border
on the frontiers : tlie prohibition of foreign manufaclurcs of silk , cotton , and wool , iirouccc the same result , owinio the insufficiency of the supply manufactured by the State , the immoderate competition oi tlie dealers , and the low prices asked for contraband goods brought in from without . Confined within narrow territorial limits , debarred entrance into the other Italian countries which are a market for foreign manufactures , wanting the direction of au Institute for industrial instruction , the i onibaiuo-Vcaeiiriu manufacturers camio ! satisfy the Jema-. nl either ra .-lirc- ^ aril to quantity , variety , or beauty , nor produce goods on equal tei-ms with other countries . The hand of ( he . Austrian Goccnmioit means a system of Jans and custom-house regulations which impedes the free circulation of manufactures and colonial produce ,
eren within the country , and inflicts a fine on the proprietor of a manufacture , every time a few kilogrammes are surprised in t * ieir transit from one town of tlie state to another , without a license taken out from tlie place of starting ; snlgecling the merchants , in the frontier districts especially , to the liability of having both their warehouses and dwellings searched by day and night , and often several times a week . The hand of the Austrian Goceraaeut means a code of finance so involved and so obK-urc * that chance and caprice reign absolute sovereigns iu tlie Louilttirdo-Yeiictian- Provinces , imposing lasts upon arts and industry at random , to be extorted by violence ; to which fur the commercial man is added the Jfcflsuififc tax , imposed by tlie Camera di Cotnmereia : it means tho increase of the expense of protesting hills
« f esefcauge , tbe mtnunton of whicli is in Austrian lives & . C 4 , erenioraa amount below a Iiiratlred Uvres ; by which means the Government fattens upon poverty , since the number of protested bills increases-in proportion tc the badness of trade . The haul of Hie Austrian Government means tliat unjustifiable act by which , in 1 SI 0 ; tlie Lomtanfo-Yenetiai ! public debt , known as theMoHblamiardo-IVario , wa > increased by nearly twenty-five millions f , to obtain a heavy loan from tlie greatest usurer ia Europe awl some of liis colleagues — an act which-spread distrust amofcg ihe holders of coupons in Our Monte , and knocked down to 111 ( and at first even to 105 ) a live per cent , siock which was before selling at about j IK The hand of tie Austrian Goeenmcnt means the j ciwniii'us tax on postage ( forty centimes from H ' aan to j
I'iaccnz . -t , fourteen leagues distant from each other , GO for Keggio and Hudcua , 83 for Bologna aud Florence , & c ) , thus restricting more and more the intercourse between Loui-ardy and Central Italy , already so circumscribed hy custom-house regulations : % it means the entire absence of a jury or tribunal of arbitration , to decide disputes conscientiously aud with local knowledge , teiZiuus process , auda faulty organisation of the commercial tribunal , before which the pleadings can only he through au advocate , and where facts are always neglected for forms . What between the system whidi prohibits the introduction of raw material , and the restricted market , we are ivm *] in Lombard / to export our raw produce and to receive iu return manufactured goods at high prices . Thecarelcss traveUer-iasang rauidlvthronga ourpoimlons
towns , is astonished at the luxury displayed in tliiin : he does not know that in winter the hospitals are tilled with men who feign themselves 5 J 1 , in order that they may reecho there tlie means of sustenance they could not find elsewhere : he sees with admiration houses and palaces rise as by magic ; hut he does not know that those are no sagas of iirosnerity , bat only on investment forced upon capital , whicli cannot run the hazard of any enterprise of commerce , whilst trade is so hampered and stationary . What lus tlie Austrian Government ever done to establish harmony and unity in the relations of commercial and industrial policy ? It has adopted the decimal system in its relations with the governed ; but at the same time permitting the governed themselves - to make use of ancient systems in their reciprocal dealings , SO that a
feuleagues distance between town and . town causes a difference hi the circulation of money , and make a variation iu tlie weights and measures . What . has the Austrian Corenmieut done towards tnrning to practical use , by large hydraulic works for the benefit of agriculture , the copious streams which flow through lomhardy 1 "What has it done towards making roads to'oommunleate between place and place f Faithful to its rule of impeding progress as much as possible , except so far as to take tbe direction of every enterprise it cannot succeed in hindering , it has done its best to throw delays in the way of tlie numerous projected lines of railroad ; but so soon as the Jtfonza railroad was finished , it hastened to share the success by levying a per centagc oa the profits , through a
new postal duty , and by claiming for its own benefit the -whole undertaking as soon as the lease expires : it has done the same by the tctoeifm . Perhaps , sh , you say undertakings like fliese ought not to be instigated by Government , hut that they ought to he left to private enterprise . I have not much faith in tlie miracles ofMssez faire , laissez passer ; but , however , that may be , recollect sir , that I am speaking of a country despotically governed , where the spirit of association is seen with an eye of suspicion ; I awi speaking of a country where individual activity is checked and crashed in a thousand ways When Coremmcnt declares that the citizens of a country are to be kept in the perpetual tutelage of slaves , itiroplicitlv undertakes to act for them and todirect their affairs .
Mr . Mazzixi next reviews the administration ofjnsiice iu Lombard— Venetian Italy , which owing to the complexity and tardiness of tkeproccedings , the multiplicity of laws , the enormity of judicial expenses ' , the bad arrangement of the prisons , and the defective organisation of the magistracy , is of the worst possible character . Eighty- to ninety Tolnnies form the government collection of laws ; to which must he added the codes civil and criminal , the code of those misdemeanours of which the police takes cognisance , and the code of custom-house dues and regulations , the high degrees of the judicial hierarchy—that is io say , where they who preside in the courts have to decide on questions wherein a perfect knowledge of the Italian and its dialects is indispensable '—arc lillcd hy Germans who can hardly stammer the language . Mr . Mizzixisays : —
Those concerned in civil suits are ' often wearied out , and renounce their claim , resigning themselves to tbe first loss . But these defects have a more serious influence in CTiaiiual causes . Oa the thud of September 1 S 10 , au individual was brought up from the prison of Corao , who had been confined there for two years isi & outkaeiny being cnawd . 15 ut not to dwell longer on special cases , the occurrence of which however rarely is sufficient to condemn the system , I assert tliat criminal causes generally ha ; for g ; a . ls . Ill clothed , ill fed , the accused languish all * he time in prisons which usually are unhealthy ; and "hae . iftheydonot die of scurvy , they often come out iaibtrile , unable to work , or at least utterly unable to
procure any : crowded , ten , fifteen , twenty togetherm die same prison , where the imnvcent perhaps , or those guiky of very slight crimes , are mingled with radians and assassins , ihey come out as from aschool of infamy , utterly
But the worst feature of Austrian despotism remains to he shown—the system of espionage and po ice rule . There are in Lomhardy alone 300 Prow agents , SJ 2 gendarmes , 1233 police guards , with a whole army of guardians , tiuder-gnardiaas , paoiers , feo & dini ' , guards of fortified places , & c . * fA eare Su 35 " * oltha frontiers , of the communes , " nf 5 <*? ds and forests , of the towns , all under the * ontroi of the police . Tiere are spies of the viceroy « the governor , of the-dusctor of police , * f the com-~^ s , of the delegates , of the distriefceommis-*~^ j <> f tbe bishops , « f ihe provosts , aciaag inde-^™ % of eachother , hutiiil joining the main root wiuesvij , . „ , - „ . - „ ot'ii * i , ; cmace "
faS . illi Uzusj . "all thJsinwaitousiiJoh ( I do not i 3 i £ ri ? " <& though . tha ? also is a tool of the ™ A has for its principal object the search after wd snpnreaion of ^^ ^^ fa ,,. With this , ia yfJB cal tegar ^ ewrvflmigit can do is right , every ! f g « permitted to JL Every outrage is allowed ; t inl i ? k * toger eTen t " shadow of . protec nhr . *? awarfare , a dishonest warfare , without t « T , without shame , carried on in darkness , by tST « ,, ° » bine all the tricks ofchicane with ^ wH-hloodcd ernelfy of an Iroquois . " ^ tt . AUarsi draws the following awful picture of "« Mrtttres inflictedon the suspected patriots in the aroc ^^ seons , and flie hdli ^ Bystem of eBpion-¦ « M l which they ^ the wctims . It must be re-GT ^ tAatWr . Maizki is addressing Sir JiMKs left 0 * ' ** ° « if &* i * Parficb of conscience , ttD ^ 5 »» Jy . feel ft * tortures 0 f reverse , ' shame ,
, Italy, Atjstria..Axd The Pope, So. In....
and self-detestation , when remembering the vile part he has performed in helping to furnish- victims to glut the cold-blooded savagery of MEmnxicn and Go . Have you ever read , " sir , two books from the pens of political sufferers at the Austrian Spielberg , Silvio I ' ellieo and Andryane , containing theaccount of their sufferings , written vvilh so much moderation that one of tliem has been allowed to be printed and reprinted in Italy ? If you have not , sir , endeavour to find time , between the issuing of one warrant and another , to glance over them . Perhaps when you learn ihe vengeance that overtakes political offenders iu Austrian Italy §—when you see , beside the horrors alluded to in the note , the torture of
hunger , literally of hunger , inflicted upon them ; when you . see , Pktro yarouctllilosing hiilefilegin const < paenee of the weight and pressure of his fetters—losing it by amputation at the upper part of the thi gh , because the Governor of Spielberg , having received his prisoner with two legs , was obliged to givo him up in the samecomli . tion , and therefore could not allow the operation to take place until ha had received a sanction from Vienna perhaps , I say , you will then have a glimmering perception of the terrible responsibility which is . attached to the communication of intelligence obtained from the correspondence of aiiy for eigner over tvliom you may play the spy on behalf of Austria .
Aud do you Know , sir , how people reach Spielberg from Lomhardy ? Are you aware how slight a matter ' when ouce the suspicions of Austria are excited , is suflU cient to precipitate the victim tkithcr ? Take the trials of 1820-21 , they will tell you . They will tell jfiii lion-Colonel Silvio Moretti was condemned to fifteen years of theearCCfC de . ro , upon what were called indicial proofs , founded on false statements m ide against him b y some of his fellow-accuscd , when , in consequence of a report of his suicide spread through the prisons by the Government , they believed him past danger ; but retracted by them when they saw him alive before the court . Tiiev
iviu teiiyou of Lieutenant Giovanni Bachirga sentenced to fifteen years of the coreerc d « ro , as convicted iiot only ofacQKcd Msl ' de intentions totixirdj tlie Imperial House of Austria , out as disposed to resist il arms in handr and this bt-cause he replied " Certainly" to the judge ' s demand , " WouUyouhear arms for Italy , if some day she should rise nationally : " They will tell you of I ' ezia , an ex-Captain of Engineers , condemned to three years Of the CarCCre dui' 0 in the castle of Laybach , because lie gave an ambiguous reply to the judge ' s question of " whether lie would have denounced a Carbouaro if be had hnowu him to be such ¦;' and this was ruled to be an answer in the negative .
Da not fancy , sir , thattliesearcexctplioiia ' . cases , whicli might have been produced from the terror excited iu Austria by the insurrections of Naples and l'icdmont : I could show many similar examples in the trials of 1831 ai « U 533 . Uut it is not in these iniquitous condemnations to Spielberg , these coups d ' cclat of Austrian justice , that lies the wound which festers in Lomhardy : it is possible , when nationality is a belief , not a reaction , to leave Spielberg , like ' my estimable friend Dr . i'oresti , calm , unmoved , the same as the man of fifteen years before . It is the gencial system , at work round each individual—at work each day of the year , each hour of the day—endeavouring to crush under mistrust , suspicion , and fear , the moral faculties of our youth , to which I would point : it
is the brutal exhibition of physical force , from thelevelled cannons ou the Duomo at Milan , mute but eloquent symbols , down to the insolence of the police-guards who encumber the streets day and night—from the base and brutal manner in which the Austrian officers treat tlie young men of tlie University of Pavia on" the least appearance of disorder , down to the liberty- granted to custom-house officers to fire on smugglers in their flight : it is the arbitrary and frequent refusal of passports for foreign countries , and even for the interior , ' combined with the enormous penalties on those who dare to do without them ; the unlimited and irresponsible power of arrest given to the police ; the prohibition of inviting one ' s friends to a ball without previously giving notice to the police : it is the habitual violation of Government
amnesties , such as , for instance , caused I > e Luigi to be refused permission to exercise his profession of advocate , although the words of the decree iu tlie faith of which he returned did not contain any such restriction ; such as threw in prison Lancet ti , another amnestied emigrant , who , at the cud of two years , ruined by his hard treatment , was sat at liberty to die , invoking curses on his persecutors : it is the omnipotence granted to the superior agents of the police , going even to impiety , and producing , in what concerns political cases , such monstrous facts as that of the Count Bolza forcing a sacris t ™ to give him a consecrated wafer , which he administered himself in 1833 to one Uiauchi , who was in prison and dying , to do away with all excuse for admitting within
the walls even a priest ; the violation—but that will not strike you , Sir James , as anytliiiiu very immoral—tbe violation of private correspondence ; the preeelto in the name of the police and without any interference on the part of the tribunals , forbidding hundreds of individuals from leaving the town for an indefinite time : and beyond ail this , it is the system of espionaije , organised on such a scale that in the city of Milan alone its costs the sum of near 200 , 000 Austrian livres a month , invading the peace of families , breaking the bonds of ftiendshfp , scattering tie seeds of selfism and corruption , gaining its ends by calumny , going even the length of provoking crime when it can discover none to reveal—distributing revolutionary documents with one hand and signing a dnunciaction with the other . Next week we shall exhibit the abominations of the Papal Govemnient .
* So Obscure, In Fact, That The Aulie Co...
* So obscure , in fact , that the Aulie Council , hy whose agency the code was issued , was obliged some seven or eight years ago to call in the assistance of a Koyal Lombard Commission , to settle the best interpretation to be put on certain clauses . t The debt known as the Monte Lombardo-Vencto , which devolved on Austria vrttli our provinces in 1815 , was the quota falling to us , on a proportional division with other Italian States , of tlie public debt of the Kingdom of Italy , known as the Jfynie A ' apoteonc ; whicli iu its turn partly arose from tlie recognition and transmutation of the old provincial debts . There is now talk of a projected addition of fifteen millions more . % For the convenience of a private lcfter-bo . v , commercial men pay five centimes extra for every letter .
f The condemned shall be confined in a dungeon , secluded from all communication , with only so much light and space as is necessary to sustain life ; he shall be constantly loaded with heavy fetters on tho hands and feet : lie shall never , except during the hours of labour , be without a chain attached to a circle of iron round his body ; his diet shall be bread and water , a hot ration every second day ; but never any animal food—his bed to be composed of naked planks , and he shall be forbidden to see any one —without exception . "—Such is the definition of the carcete ditrisfimo in the Penal Code , § 14 . The hot ration ( cibo alio ) consists of slices of bread steeped in hot water , aud flavoured with tallow . It is a common thing for those condemned to tlie eareere duro to wear twenty-pounds weight of chains ; they are worked like galley-slaves , and have neither light nor paper nor books : never , except sometimes by an extraordinary favour ou Sundays ( to attend mass , ) leaving their cold and humid cells .
Night Ascesi Of Mn. Greex, Is His Balioon, With Fmewonns, From Vaoxhall Gardens.—On
Night Ascesi of Mn . Greex , IS HIS BalIOON , with FmEwonns , from Vaoxhall Gardens . —On
Monday Night This Celebrated Aerial Voya...
Monday night this celebrated aerial voyager undertook the perilous feat of a night ascent in his balloon , displaying fireworks of a novel and extraordinary description from the ear . The gardens were crowded . Tlie balloon selected by Mr . Green was the Albion , formerly the property of Mr . Hampton , an intrepid aeronaut . 31 r . Green considerably enlarged it , and it will now contain 26 , 0 ( 10 cubic feet of gas , and stands 60 feet in height . Mr . Darby , tlie artist to tiie gardens , had the arrangement of the fireworks , which were attached to a frame or wheel , and this was suspended to the car by a line of about 70 feet in length , attached to a swivel , so that it
might spin freely in the air , and thus increase the effect Of the display . The frame consisted of three conjunct wheels , the radius of each being six feet , the circumference of the entire frame 36 feet , and the separation between each wheel 15 inches . Mr . Green was provided with a regulating winch in the car , so that lie was enabled to wind up or lower the frame with the fireworks at pleasure . The fireworks consisted of variegated lights , Italian gcrbs , with les petit eloiles , coloured Roman candles , French jets , and Chinese streams of fire , concluding with an enormous bouquet of coloured fires . Mr . Green , on ascending the car , stated that this was his three hundred and fifth ascent , and that it was twenty-one vears since he first ascended with fireworks , on which
occasion he alighted at King George ' s farm at Richmond . The car was then attached to the balloon , Mr . Green previously depositing in it his barometer , a large lantern of peculiar construction , his compass , map , a guide-line of about & thousand feet , grapnel , and between two and three hundred weight of ballast , in bags varying from ten to twenty pounds each ; iikewise a number of coloured lights to assist him in his descent . The frame with the fireworks was then affixed to the car , great care being taken to prevent its position being reversed from the horizontal to the vertical , as in the case of Madame Blanchard , who lost her life in a night ascent at Paris , the frame , hy
an accident , becoming reversed , and the fireworks consequently playing into the car , instead of beneath the balloon , " ignited the silk , and an explosion ensued . At eleven o ' clock the signal for ascent was giren . Mr . Green immediately seized the "liberating iron" with one hand , and lighting the fusee with the « ther , . ascent took place , amidst the cheers of the assembled thousands outside the gar dens , and of the company within . The fireworks in a few seconds were discharged , and a more unliiaat aerial exhibitwQ was never witnessed . The balloon took a northern jdir ection , and it was generally considered that Mr . Green would Jand in Middlesex . The ascent will be repeated .
GovEns-MEvr has vejy properly made a grant of £ 20 , 000 for the relief of the sufferers by the great fires at Quebec . Akotheb Cure woes aeh «« t at Death ' s door , bt Horxowix ' s Puis . —Mrs . Williams , alady of fortune , residing at Clapham-rise , was gfoeniip by the most eminent medical men , who all agreed that she _ had what is termed " no inside left , " hec stomach ; lifer , arid heart were in a most disordered condition , and altogether so generally debilitated , as to be scarcely able to wiijktwentyyardswithnnt fainting { however , in two months , b y nhdergoing a course of this invigorating and ; life-preserving medicine , ' she'fas regained her former health and strength , and can now mk { ffenfynulegaday .
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-SSSSS ? S ^!!?* _ _
To The' Ed1t0e Op The Sormeb.V Star. Sin...
TO THE' ED 1 T 0 E OP THE SORmEB . V STAR . Sin , —The letter which reaches you under this cover was originally designed for publication in the 'Aation newspaper , as the proper vehicle to contain a refutation of the Slanderous Statements and uncharitable sentiments transferred from the lips Of Our Vfry Irish " LlJIEltATOIt !" toitseolumus . Such , however , is the state of things here with regard to the Conciliation Hall censorship exercised over the press , with which it pretends to disclaim all coiiii-.-etion , that the Editor of this best of bur Dublin "Liberal" prints politely returned me thc 3 fS .. in a note .
stating that he declined publishing it , "lest evil instead of good might arise" from its appearance . The Editor has a perfect ri ght to protect his pecuniary interests , and perhaps if he fears that" evil" may accrue to me , on the "hooting" system , I ought to thank him for his watchful tenderness , but having already borne the denunciation of the great leader , I am callous to his abuse , and will not place truth in abeyance , lest evil may fall on the enemies of toleration , the foes of charity , if not of Christianity . I trust , sir , you will do mc the justice denied by the Xalion as an old reader and admirer of the Star , AV . II . Dvon .
CIVIL AXD RELIGIOUS LIBERTY . To the Editor of the Aation . Sir ., —It may be assertc . d of your journal , and without the suspicion of flattery , that it is more fearlessly independent and more magnanimousl y just , than any other newspaper claiming for itself the designation "Liberal " in Ireland , for while with unequalled ability and unrivalled Spirit it brings ihe whole artillery of literature to bear upon the national foe , still the courtesies « X civilised warfare are preserved , and even the enemy must allow that bis assailants , and in instances I trust to be multiplied , his conquerors—are gentlemen . If such be the character established by the conductor . ; of the Nation amongst foreign adversaries , much more have they gained for themselves , amongst their oivn countrymen Jill the
respect and admiration , which must ever be consequent on pursuing the path of principle with manliness , moderation , and justice—allowing no merely factious or sectarian bias to warp or distort the ever glorious truth ; allowing fairly for the honest prejudices of men who have been taught to differ from them , and reciprocating esteem with those who as manfully combatfor their peculiar convictions . Such a line of conduct has earned for the Nation reverence , aye , and authority , toe , cven-amongst tbe Orangemen of lbenorlb , from which I have but just returned , or I would before this have claimed on the part of outraged " Civil and Religious Liberty" a corner in the valuable columns of your journal . I claim it now , solemnly and emphatically claim it , as a rightful concession to eternal justice , to slandered Christianity , and lo insulted liberty .
IntlicYiiCtotof the 12 th of July , I find the following passage : — "If there be infidels amongst us they must have the hypocrisy to conceal their principles , for well they know that if they were to make a profession of them , they would ha hcoted from society . "—Speech of Mr . Daniel O'ConneU at " Conciliation Mali on Mond-xy , July 7 tA , cm reported tit the Xation . Now , Mr . Editor , as a person deeply conversant with the tone of popular feeling , I ask you , do you really believe the above statement , or do you not agree with me that it is unfounded iu fact and grossly slanderous upon the Christians of the present day ? What ! if a man happens to oe so " invincibly ignorant , " so hopelessly obtuse , as to arrire at conclusions , on matters mystical
and miraculous , in accordance with those entertained by Bayh , Gibbon , Kossenu / Owen , and others of the Philosophic cast , and if he be honestly simple enough tocnndidly espress his theological sentiments , do you really believe that the good Christians of these days would ferociously " hoot" him out of society ? or being allowed to go as far as "hooting" by their " moral force" commander , try perhaps to change his sentiments by alterations on his ccrehal region—such as raising a " bump" on his " veneration" department , < tc . Seriously , sir , if such be the case , what advances , after all our clamouring , have we matte in the true understanding , and real practice of civil and religious liberty ? And if it be not the case , lllUSt not the man be deeply depraved in heart by the
vcni'inous taint of a relentless bigotry , -who dares to give utterance to such sentiments for himself—much more , to charge them on the entire body of the " orthodox ? '' If such sentiments arc not entertained by the Christians of Ireland—and I do not believe they are—will any of them have manliness to come forward now , to disavow and to repudiate tlicm f—Will they shoir tliat their ciMSirr isequul to their Faith ? or are we , indued , to sit down in th 3 belief that '' Toleration , " however talked about , is a doctrine which only includes those sects which are numerous enough to defend themselves , while civil excommunication , "hooting out of society , " is to he the gentle reproof with which honest conscientious dissent from popular and current creeds is to be met ?
Sir , we cannot disguise the fact—such is the exposition of Christianity , given by one of its most illustrious lay defenders in the nineteenth century—it has no bowels for the unbeliever ; the wall of partition ( according to Jlr . O'ConneU ) between Jew and Gentile might as well have never Oaen thrown down ; and , had he lived in the days of the apostles I doubt not but he would have resisted St . P . tul on Circumcision aud St . Peter on Pork ! But I fearlessly demand of Mr . O'ConneU , where , in the Bible , except in the bloody dispensation of the Jews , from whicli the ncn- law that God "in the fullness of time " thought proper to deliver to the world , redeemed us , he filjds ground fov tie . inhuman doctrine of " hooting men out Of society" for their religious opinions , however
erroneous . I am confident that the Christian priesthood of Ireland will make no such discovery' in the New Testament , and that if they did , they would blush to find the uncharitable record there . And shall the arrogance ol any layman , no matter what his celebrity or authority in other matters , lead him to fulminate his anathemas against men who , morally , may he as good as himself at least 3 'Whatis it to me that the lues of SmUhficld he extinguished by civilising processes of time . if I am to be dared to come forth , in order that I may be destroyed—for if 1 be hooted out of society , made a pariah in the land of my birth , I am socially annihilated or obliged to remain silent with that less of self-respect , which ever must wait upon hypocrisy enforced 1 Better bo murdered at once than driven from the haunts and sympathies of men .
But mark , sir , the inconsistency of Mr . O'ConneU : he is the advocate of the Jews , not , T am sure , from interested motives as other great men are , and yet the Jews do most cordially detest the memory of Christ as an impostor , who troubled their Rabbis and blasphemed their God . Did not he ( Mr . O'C . ) deem Raphael a renegade infidel Jew , and though a kind of Chrysalis Christian , " amost incomprehensible vagabond , " sufficiently good to represent the Christian constituency of Carlow "i And did he not select for his own coadjutor in administering the parliamentary rights Of the Catholics of Dublin , a gentleman named Ilutten , an extreme Unitarian , who , being true to his own principles , must repudiate the divinity of Christ , even if he aUow the virginity of his mother ; nay , he ( Mr . O'C . ) then hurled civil-excommunication against the pious timid , who from a religious scruple hesitated to vote for this genllcnjaa .
Truly , sir , Mr . 0 Council appears to have vacillated on the question of religious liberty to quite as great an extent as upon the subject of Poor Laws , and only to have got as far at any time as what philosophers call the " pivot" point . lie seems now , indeed , to have abandoned "toleration" altogether , ana changed his sentiments as completely on the subject of Christian charity as on that of " mixed education . " God grant that his next aberration he not on " repeal , " for lam content to count the slight oscillation towards federalism which you , sir , corrected as au error , rather more venial than the slip with regard to the " wings" so unmercifully clipped by poor Jack Lawless , whose soul may God assoillsize .
In sending you this letter , sir , 1 have acted both on impulse and with deliberation . I consider that liberty can never be said to exist whilst any class among men arc oppressed . 1 think it opposed to the genius of Christianity as well as tie plain dictates of justice , to exercise twrorism over the variations of human thought . In all ages , some of the most celebrated men , whether for scientific and literary attainments , for public virtue or for private worth , have breti of what is maliciously termed the "infidel" school—they exist largely in France , Bugland , America , and every country of progress at present , and there are some of them in Ireland too , notivithstund . ing what Mr . O'ConneU asserts to the contrary . To these men I would extend the protection of the law , and the courtesies of society , malting then , for their actions alone , like any other sect , responsible . 1 have argued tlie matter both as a Christian and as a Deist , without avowing myself cither ; what has the world to do with my
opinions ; I oppugn no man for his . But I claim for ah . what each demands—freedom of thought and liberty of speech , and though I should again be denounced as a " fellow , " and a " miscreant , " aye , sir , even should y ; ou be lauded for the " praiseworthy propriety" with which you may refuse me the insertion of this letter , still will 1 struggle undismayed , to assert that liberty , without which life is disrobed of half its dignity , and to hold up to the moral indignation of the world , the base betrayers of their mission , who , with lips absolutely hired to preach freedom in its fullest extent , daily give utterance to sentiments totally subversive of the ends they themselves affect to propose , and whilst thus stultifying former propositions , forget tliat an intelligent foe will not fail to note the discrepancies of their speeches and the spuriousness of their doctrines—retarding the great cause of human progression , although most unjustly , on account of the imperfections of its loudest , I will not say its most sincereadrocateslest I should inflict a wound on truth .
, , I trust I may be acquitted of any presumption in publishing thi * letter . No man is too humble , and every man in a free community has the right to be heard . I am not satisfied with aso-far-shalt-thou-go-aiid-no-farthcr sort of freedom of opinion . Intolerance must be altogether given up ; indeed , I had begun to hope that expediency had dug its grate , and justice consigned it to oblivion in that peace which ithadlong denied the world . Sacred for ever be the rights of conscience ! We would do well to imitate our transatlantic brethren . A convention Of "infidels" met the other day in America , who wcrencaber "hooted" nor maltreated , though an orthodor journal passed a good joke enough on the occasion , by saying tb & t they looked as if they fell out with God Almighty for making them so ugly , the majority of their faces being such as Lavater would not countenance .
Strong in my own motives , Mr . Editor , putting faith in yourairness , and iwpiiigto arrest the vile practiceof eeetariandeuunclationj by claiming libfirtj' , both civil aud religious for man , whether black , ; white , CbvUtian , Pagan , or'Jew . I remain ,-triffi profound fesoeeL your-obedient sonant , ^/ SorthKing ^ treet . yr . ^ , Diorr .
. Ap-Ifliltiitt M Mvtimltim
. ap-ifliltiitt m mvtimltim
Field-Gallden Operations. For The Week C...
FIELD-GAllDEN OPERATIONS . For the Week commencing Monday , Aug . litk , 1843 . [ Extracted from a Uiabs ci Actual Operations on live small farms ou the estates of tho late Mrs . D . Gilbert , near-Eastbourne , ill Sussex ; and on several model farms on the estates of the Earl of Dartmouth at Slaithwaito , in 'Yorkshire , published by Mr . Noivell , of Fai ' uley Tyas , near iluddersfield , in order , to guide other possessors of field gardens , by-showing ' them what labours ought to bo undertaken on their owi ' i lauds . The farms' selected as models are—First . Two school farms . at Willingdpn and Eastdean , of live acres each , conducted by . U . Cruttcnden and John Harris . Second . Two private farms , of five or six acres : one worked by Jesse Piper , the other by John Dumbrcll—the former at Eastdean , the latter at Jevington—svll of them within a few miles of Eastbourne . Third . An industrial school farm at
Slaithwaite . r ourtii . Several private model farms near the sameplaee . Thcconsecutivc operations in these reports will enable the curious reader to compare the climate . mil agricultural value of the south with the north of England . The Diary is aided by "Notesand Observations " from the pen of Mr . JS ' owell , calculated lor the time aiid season , which we subjoin . " The wisest men—the greatest philosophers—after in vain seeking for happiness in every variety of pursuit , have found it in the cultivation of the ground . " Noie . —The school farms are cultivated b y lays , ivlw in return for three hours' teaching in the morning ,
give three hours of their labour in the afternoon for the master ' s benefit , which renders the schools selfsurroimxo . We belkve that at Famly Tyas sixsevenths of the produce of the school farm will be assigned to the boys , and one-seventh to the master , who will receive the usual school fees , help the boys to cultivate their land , and teach them , in addition to reading , writing , die , to convert their produce into bacon , by attending to pig-keeping , vihieh at Christmas may be divided , after paying rent and levy , amongst them in proportion to their services , and bcmadcthusindircctly to reach their parents in a «/ a < / the most grateful to their feelings . ]
SUSSEX . JfoxDAY— Willingdon School . No report for the week , probably the lit tie boys out with the farmers , l'iper . Reaping wheat . Mmbrell . Digging up tare ground , and reaping wheat . Tuesday —2 ' ipcr . Reaping wheat . Dumbrcll , Digging up tare ground , reaping wheat , and hoeing turnips . Wednesday—Piper . Cleaning pig stye , and reaping wheat , i / uiiitirctt . Transplanting swede turnips , digging up tare ground , and reaping wheat aud
oats . Thursday—Piper . Reaping wheat . Dumbrcll , Mowing oats , and reaping wheat . FniDAY—l'iper . Mending lucerne with liquid . Dumbrcll . Heaping oats , and wheat . Saturday—l'iper . Finished wheat reaping , and pulling peas . Dumbrcll . Mowing oats , reaping wheat , and emptying the privy pails .
COW-FEEWXO . ' Piper , Cows are feeding upon white turnips , grown upon tbe land where the rye and tares came oil last spring- ! \ Dumbrcll . During the week one cow grazed in the day . and fed morn and even withiOibs . of cabbage . And one . cow and heifer stall-led entirely , with lGiibs . of tares .
Duxo Mixess.—Behind The Cow-House ' In T...
Duxo Mixess . —Behind the cow-house ' in the maii : yard you should have a spacious area , divided by -a roadivayin tltc middle , and allowing on cither s ' iik a roomy quadrant shaped lloor , upon which ' fo compost lh-j manure ejected from the eew-housc . It should be enclosed by a wall , acting as a breastwork to the manure heap when formed , which will prevent evaporation , and escape of liquid from its sides , . by restoring what filtrates to the floor of the mixen . This yard is to be your agricultural laboratory ; foi truly , many chemical changes , although invisible tc yon , will there be effected , and a great variety ol valuable products obtained for future use . As the dung mixci ) , which contains these products , is a most important ' a « cnt—it' is a thing for you to be very proud of . You may send across the seas to the Ohincha islands , or to Ichaboc , for guano ; but in a dung mixen ,. properly compounded , yon will find , to a certain extent , all the inuredicnts that give that excellent manure its value . Task . —In nutting down the tank , or forming the floors for these- mixens , all your care will bo required so that none of your fluids may bo lost . The best place for the tank will be near the entrance to the composting yard , partly under one of the mixens , but also reaching under tbe wall into tho main yard , so that its contents may be inspected from without . There lot it be placed , in a pit sunk within the ground , so low , that there may be a good descent towards it from every part of the yard . It may be formed of bricks ; or , what is better , of stones grooved and jointed , aiid placed upon a floor of well puddled clay at the bottom of the pit . After it is placed there , it must be cemented well together , and SUII'oundcd with clay puddle well beaten down at its sides , particularly at the bottom and corners . . After the tank is completed , let your gutters or channelled stones be laid down to it in a direct lino , across the
floors of tho mixens , from the coir-house , piggerv , etc ; , with care ^ and then let the whole floors be filled , to the height of the channel stones , with well beaten clay puddle , at"an inclination from tho outer walls in all directions to them . Let these tight clay floors be paved with rough stones , so that all drain ! ngs from the mixen by falling upon them may be conveyed to the gutters , and joining tho liquid in its passage from the cow-lod » o or other sources , both may flow without intei'i'upt ' . oii to the tank . To promote this , the gutters , as also that part of the tank whicli is intended to lie under the mixen , must be covered with loose stones , to prevent the intrusion of manure from above them . Let the water from the eves of the building , and top water from every source , BE LED AWAY ALTOGETHER pnoit mis YAitn and task ; and your manure manufactory , with the exception of placing the pump , will be completed .
Tank Liquid Pi'mp . —Within , and near the doorway of , the composting yard , place down your pump , so that its working barrel being buried in the warm manure hean ^ up to the cistern , the fvecxiug of its contents duringwinter may be prevented . The lever of the pump must project over the wall , and he worked in the main yard , while its delivering pipe may be furnished with a wooden spout ei g ht or ten feet long , connected together by a swivel joint , round which it turns horizontally—inwards—over the manure , in order , that the tank liquid being pumped may flow over either mixen—or outwards , iwto a water barrel mounted upon wheels , standing in the main yard , from whence it becomes removed to the growing crops , or applied to other purposes .
Size of Task . —In regard to the size of the tank , one of five feet in length , three feet in breadth , and three feet in depth , has been found quite sufficient for eight or ten head of cattle ; it will be filled generally in about se von toon days . Such a tank maybe emptied , and its contents spread upon grass near tlie homestead in about an hour . In the West of Yorkshire , the cost of one of the above dimensions , exclusive of digging the pit , and the puddling , will be about fifty shillings . TEsiponAnr Task . —If a cottager , ov his landlord , wishes to avoid expense , a good substitute will be found by sinking within the ground one ev two oil pines , or sugar hogsheads , connected by a tube at
the bottom , and placing them upon a bed of puddled clay well beaten , having the sides well enwrapped with the same material ; as the girths decay , the vessels by external pressure will remain firmly united together and last many years , especially if the inside be charred . I must beg you , however , during the fixing of these things , ' always to remember , and have uppermost in your mind , that a single aperture , through which a knitting needle could scarcely pass , may be the means of tapping your tank , aud withdrawing part of its contents , while you remain in ignorance of its existence .
Method op Composting Makure . —Spread equally , and cover the whole of each mixen floor , with a layer of cow dung , horse litter , etc ., to the thickness of eight or ten inches , and keep the long straw nearest the floor . Then for every . cart load of fresh dung , take 10 or I 21 bs . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) pounded from tbe rock , whicli will cost you from 2 s . Gd . to 3 s . per cwt ., sprinkle it over the surface of the layer of dung . ^ Bring in a load of mould from headlands , decaying roots , scouring of ditches , road scrapings , stubble , saw dust , indeed nothing can come amiss , and leaving it on the composting yard pavement , the cart may pass through the cow-lodge without turning round . Let the rubbish , so left , be handed to either mixen , and spread over the surface ; moreover , when you ean , at intervals , obtain a load or two of earthy matter , yournayspread . it upon the other . In this statelet it remain as a covering , until you have a fresh supply of dune under the manure doors , then
fork over the first stratum , mixing the dung and mould or rubbish well together , and proceed just as before , careful neither to omit tho gypsum , nor mould , in forming a second one . Previous to forming another , repeat the forking over of the previous layer , and after a few repetitions , pump and diffuse over the whole surface as much tank liquid as will completely saturate the manure heap , and any excess will tall back again into the tank ; and this repeat , from time to time , when it may be deemed necessary to do so . With many animals in the byres , and much space in the yard , you may thus create an enormous bulk of manure , rich , and uniformly mixed . Further , meaxs of enriching the Mixek . —Your pigs must be continually supplied With fresh mould ; which they will tread into the richest compost ; it niay then'be handed over , to and compounded into the mixen . . Thr hight-soil ;' compost , hereafter described , may bcalso used inIthe same maimer .
Proper Method ob , Coi . xectino Hujun Maxobb . — A vcry iingenious rne't | u ) d '' k ' 'foUowed ' br . the Eastbourno ^ ekl ^ dcners , ; in order ' -io cMeck : aU the excrementitious niatter ; yoldci ' . in the"Prifiw ;~ An
Duxo Mixess.—Behind The Cow-House ' In T...
ale cask with one end removed , large butter firkin , or tub , value about 2 s . Gd ., is provided : a , few inches below its top , two strong iron cars or handles , are firmly rivettcd , for the convenience of removing it . Two of these tubs arc usually placed under tho privy seats , and when nearly filled are . easily removed to the eomposttiie : shed by two persons , each taking hold ofa handle . They are then turned upside down , and the contents received upon mould ,, and immediately composted with more mould , ashes , or othcr . rcfuse , using 8 or lWbs . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) for each pail full of materials . This mixture may be further enriched by the addition of tank liquid , beating all well together to tho consistency of mason ' s lime ; when spread upon the floor of the shed it will sonn dry spontaneously , and be found a most valuable top-dressing for every kind of crop , upon which it may be . sown by-hand , for all offensive smell is speedily removed by the action of the gypsum , and the retentive quality of the mould or ashes .
PuniFiCATlOX OF Cities . —[ "The annual loss in England , in liquid manure atone , lias been estimated at seven millions sterling ! ! "J—Were this simple method adopted in town and country , then misjlit we expect to sec British agriculture soon flourish in full perfection . Liquid cxcrcmcntitious matter has become an article of trade in manufacturing districts ; why should not solid become the same ? ' Near every town undoubtedly there ought to bo a regular Domestic Guano manufactory carried on , or contributed to , by the public scavengers ;' and surely , eve long , the collectinn of agents so important will claim the attention of men of capital and enterprise . Tubs with tight fitting lids and deep rims might bo used for this
purpose , to collect the sou in privies , be replaced , when filled , by others , and borne , in covered well contrived vans , to the suburbs of our cites ; where , in open composting shctls , the domestic guano , or other mixtures hereafter described , - might be fabricated . The ashes from coal fires , at the same time , might he separately tubbed , borne away , and afterwards used to compound with and assist in their desiccation . The agency of steam , also , could well be applied to dry such compounds , and of mechanical arrangements for beating up the ingredients . By such means all offensive stncH in privies would be unknown , and the removal of their contents not be offensive . While the elaboration of-them would be found far less
unpleasant than can be imagined ; of tin ' s the writer is fully eonviucvd , from a close observation of the feelings of farm servants in its performance . In order that we may appreciate these neglected things at their true value , let us attend to the following important observations of ' an eminent philosopher . "If we admit" says Boussingault , " the liquid and solid excrements of man amounts on an average to lifts daily ( Ulb urine , and Jft . of fcoccs ) , and that both taken together contain 3 per cent of nitrogen , then / none year they amount to SiTlbs ., which contain lG . 'illbs . of nitrogen , a quantity sufficient to yield the nitrogen of 8001 bs . of wheat , iye , oats , or of flOOlbs .
of barley . " And again , " Why" says Dr . Buckland , " should we go so far as the shores of Africa when wc have the remedy within ourselves—tlie essence of ale and beer , and the quintessence of beef and bread and cheese ? These arc the best of all possible manures , and why ? Because they restore to the land that which the corn and the ox have taken away ; because they restore things which the atmosphere cannot restore ; that clement can furnish charcoal and ammonia '' to growing plants , " but not that nutritious phosphate of beet" nor the gluten which enters into the commodities of which beer is composed . "
Lecture On Agricultural Chemistry. Br Pk...
LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY . Br Pkofessor JoitxsroN . If yon taUo a vortion of anything you raise for crops—of flour for example—and mix it with water so as to form it , and afterwards work it with water over a glass , letting tlie water fall into it , yon will find the water become milky . Do this so long as the water which runs off tho dough becomes milky , and afterwards you will find that the substance in your hand has undergone a change , haviin ; become move sticky , and fibrot . s . If you allow the milky substance to settle , it will become clear , and there will remain at the bottom a white powder , which we call starch .
Now , the substance in your hand is called gluten , and the clear liquid at the bottom will contain sugar and gum . Thus you can separate wheat flour into two parts , viz ., starch , the powder remaining in the glass and gluten , the substance ;! n your hand . The same would take place with any other vegetable matter ; for instance , if straw was cut into ' small pieces and pounded in a mortcr—with the difference , perhaps , that what would remain in the hand would consist wholly of woody fibre , which differs from gluten ; still there would boa quantity of gluten also . You thus find tliat there arc three classes of substance obtainedstarch , gluten , and woody fibre . Tho learned Professor then referred to a Table stating the average Composition of tho usually Cultivated Crops .
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"Wheat, You Will Observe, Contains 15 Pe...
"Wheat , you will observe , contains 15 per cent , of husk or woody fibre , 55 per cent , of starch , and from 10 to 15 per cent , of gluten . There arc several substances very analogous to gluten—for instance , the white of an egg , which is called albumen . Though it is an animal production , it also exists in plants ; and the water when clean , in whicli you work the dough , contains a portion of it . You will see that a plant contains starch , with gum and sugar ; gluten , with albumen , andhusk or woody fibre . Such arc the constituents of plants . If you take starch or sugar , and put it into a retort , and apply heat to it , it will melt , and then blacken , whilst a vapour , or water , will come off ; and by continuing the process , you will got a considerable
quantity of water , while what is left behind is charcoal . The same is the case with woody fibre , it is resolvable into two parts—charcoal and water . The common form in whicli carbon presents itself is that of wood charcoal . It is light , porous , and black ; it is so light as to float on water , but plumbago and black lead , and the diamonds , arc dense in their composition . Lamp black and soot are kinds of it . It possesses some properties to which I will draw your attention . 1 st , —If you light a piece , if it is in a pure state , it leaves no ashes behind . It disperses in the atmosphere , where it forms carbonic acid . If reduced to powder , and mixed with impure water , or spread on tainted meat , it absorbs the taint , and makes both water and meat fresh and pure . It is useful hi preserving game fresh that may be sent a distance . When in
the sou , it absorbs certain substances which arc retained within its pores , and brought within reach of plants . 3 rd , —It will absorb immense quantities of air , or other gaseous vapours , and become much heavier . There arc some kinds which will absorb greater quantities than others ; if put into ammonia it will absorb four or 500 times its own bulk . These properties have an important effect on the growth of plants . Reduce charcoal to a fine powder , and damp it , and sprinkle it over seeds , it will cause them to spring rapidly . If drilled in with wheat , it will greatly increase the crop , as well as bring it forward more rapidly . Water , the other component part of starch , woody fibre , & c , when submitted to certain chemical operations , is separated into two gases—hydrogen and oxygen . Their properties I shall very ' briefly show
you . If oil of vitrei ( sulphuric acid ) be mixed with water , and then , poured upon zinc or iron filings , it immediately boils , and a gas generates , which collected over water will be found to be hydrogen . It is invisible , and cannot be distinguished from common air by appearance or smell ; but chemists in bringing out its properties have a simple apparatus , which may be called thechemist ' ssixth sense—viz ., a lighted taper . When this is introduced into hydrogen gas a slight explosion takes place ( the result of a mixture of the hydrogen with the common atmospheric air ) , while the remaining hydrogen burns with a pale yellow flame , and the taper is extinguished . If a burner be placed in a vessel containing hydrogen gas , arid light applied , the gas will burn for some time . It has an
intense heat . If a hollow vessel be held over it the light will become dim , and water will be formed . This is the water appearing again from which the hydrogen , by _ burning , has been separated . Besides these properties it possesses another : it is the lightest body with which we are acquainted , and is used for ; inflating balloons . ' :. . _ . Water also contains another substance , oxygen . It may be produced by pouring water upon chloride ot postash , and heating it ; or , if ' red oxide of mercury be heated alone . It cannot be distinguished ' Irom air , being destitute of colour , taste or smell ; bat if a lighted taper be plunged into it ; the flame is increased in size'and brilliancy , and the taper burns away rapidly . Gbiiiginto a chamber filled witlihydrdgen '' gas ; we wouldimmediatelydic j but if it werefilled with oxygea"gas , ' all the funcUonfl of our ' nature ' - would be
stimulated and excited . Tho ««; wonderful rapidity . Wc live , as it wcic , too last . KmsueSevnnd ^ aarr to animal life , and yet . -we cannot live long in A iU TKnstitts of plants , then , cong ofcarbon and * ater ; and as water itself is formed o 1 . jd ogen and oxygen , therefore plants arc composed ot cai bon ainlhvtirogJn , and ox ygen ; but wc have also anothe constituent in gluten or albumen , which is composed otanother kind of air—viz ., nitrogen . .
If wc put a small piece of phosphorus in a saucer , kindle it , place a glass over it , ami fill the saucer with water , the light is gradually extinguished , nitrogen gas is formed . Bv applviug a taper , it is seen in what respect it differs from tlie other gases . In nitrogen it docs not burn at all . This gives an idea of the resources a chemists has in these simple kinds of apparatus to carry on his investigations . A lighted t aper serves Jiini for a new sense , makes hin ' i acquainted with properties whose existence he would not otherwise even have suspected .
Ybtt have now been informed that starch consists of carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and that gluten consists of nitrogen . Those substances chemists call elementary or simple , because they cannot be separated into other substances . They , however , combine with one another . It will be desirable hero to explain the difference in chemical language between combination and mixture . Take quantities of chat-coal and saltpetre , reduced to powder , and mix them together ; if you pour water upon ihem these substances are separated . The same takes place vtilhsanu and sawdust . These are mixtures , not combinations . Substances are said to combine when they form a new one , differing entirely in its properties f ' roin its originality . Carbon and charcoal , mixed with OXVgen , illld sot on firo , disappear altogether ,
and forms a new kind of air called carbonic acid . Put a few pieces of chalk , . marble , cr limestone , into a vessel with a little water , then pour a a little spirit of salt ( muriatic acid ) over them . An effervescence will ensue , and an air will be produced whicli is invisible , but if a taper bo put into it , it goes out .. This air is so heavy that it may bo pourotl from one vessel to another , or on a lighted candle , which it will instantly extinguish . This is the gas which given off by all fermented liquors , such as champagne , soda water , tfce . It . is formed also by the respirations of animals . Every breath which is exhaled gives out a portion of it in ( o the air ; and if we burn charcoal , wood , or eoa , we also produce carbonic acid . Wo thus find a small portion of it existing in the atmosphere , ns will be seen by tho table shewing the composition of common air : —
COJII'OSIIIO . Y OF THE AIR . Before Breathing After Breathing . Kitrogeii 1 'X 16 70 . 10 Oxygen 20 . 80 1 10 . 84 . to 12 Carbonic Acid 0 . ( M i . 00 to 8 100 100 By this table it will be seen that the air , before being inhaled , consists of nitrogen , oxygen , and carbonic acid . In' 100 gallons of common air we find 70 nitrogen , 20 oxygen , and an almcst unapprcciablo quantity of carbonic acid . A change always takes place when air is exhaled . The nitrogen " remains the same , the oxygen is reduced from 20 to 16 , whilst we have hoiv 4 gallons of carbonic acid . All vegetable substances emit carbonic acid in large quantities , when in course of decomposition . Nitrogen , which is formed by burning phosphorus , may be chem ically combined with oxygen or hydrogen . When with oxygen , it forms nitric acid or aqua-fortis . From this process wc observe a envious principle in chemical combination—viz ., that the two harmless gases—nitrogen and hydrogen—form a corrosive and burning compound , such as aqua-fortis . This acid in formed naturally in soils , manure heaps , etc ., and is of great importance to flic farmer . It combines chemically with other substances , such as potash , soda , lime , etc . and is then called nitrate of potash , nitrate of soda , nitrate of lime etc .
August . $ , 1845 . t _ H Et NOilTEfE ^ vSTAH . *
Nitrogen , combined withhyurogcn , formsammonia . This gas , I have no doubt , is familiar to every one of you , and , if any who do not already know it , would smell this bottle of hartshorn , they would not soon forget it . Ammonia is absorbed in large quantities by porous substances and fluids , often live hundred , times its bulk . ' Ammonia combines with acids . With carbonic acid it forms carbonate of ammoniathe commonsnicllingsalts of the shops . This carbonate is of importance to J ' iivmois , and may be purchased at the gas works in the shape of ammoniacul liquor . Plants consist of three parts—the roots , stems , branches and leaves . Like the branches in the air , the roots ramify in the soil , but instead of leaves they cud in minute fibres . Cut through a tree you
will find an inner pith , then wood , and lastly , the bark , consisting of two parts—an outer and an inner . Tho wood is porous , through which the sap is carried between the roots and the leaves . These capillaries extend to the end of tho twig , and spread over the leaf like veins . The sap proceeds from the roots through tltc wood , extends over lhc leaves , and returns through the inner bark . Butwucrcdocsthc sap come from ? From the soil . At the end of the root there are a number of fibres , terminating in spongy cuds , that draw in large quantities of water , and convey it into the wood . The leaves also perform an important function—iu order to understand which , wc will refer to carbonic acid . The substance of a tree is composed of carbon ami water , which carbon ,
is one ot the staple articles of food which a plant requires . Now , this is actually taken in by the plant itself . The leaves are covered all over with Jitfcle mouths , especially below , by which they absorb carbon , decomposing the oxygen it contains . The roots supply them plcutifuiy with water , aud the other staple articles of their food . You observe how small a quantity of carbonic acid is contained in the atmosphere—only one gallon for twenty-five hundred of air : and the reason why the air contains such a small quantity is , if it were impregnated with larger quantities , it would become hurtful to animal life . But , as the large quantities of this gas-are required to furnish cavhon for the support of vegetable life ; anil as tho layer of the air which surrounds a leaf only contains a very limited portion of it , wc observe a beautiful plan pursued by nature , by whicli the air
and leaves are kept in continual motion by the breeze ; thus fresh supplies of carbonic acid arc continually brought within the reach of the plant . Before the leaf is formed the young shoot performs the same function , so do the shoots of grain , grasses , etc . Water forms one of the chM articlesol'ibou to plants , but it serves another function—it serves as a carrier , by which food is supplied to the plants . The water which the roots drink in is scarcely ever pure , but is impregnated with other substances , in solution ; cominsj into contact with the roots , it enters and carries witn it the substances it has dissolved in the soil . It thus carries carbonic acid , potash , and various other organic substances from the vegetable matter in the soil . There is a difference of opinion amongst chemists as to whether the greater portion of the organic food of plants is derived from the soil or fi'om the air , but I incline to the hitter opinion .
The acids which contribute to the nrnrishinent of plants are humic and ulmic acids . If we take a portion of vegetable soil , and put it into a bottle ol hartshorn , and after shaking , allow it to stand over for a day or two , wc will get a dark substance ; if to this vye add a quantity of muriatic acid ( spirit of salt ) , wo will have humic acid , and if hartshorn be used , it will become ulmic acid . These acids are not easily soluable in water , but are dissolvable in water containing ammonia , and exist in farm-yard liquids whicli run to waste . I have one observation to
make as to the source from whence the nitrogen consumed by tho plants is derived . Plants get their substance from tho soil , but principally from ammonia produced during the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter . It is also obtained partly from nitric acid . I beg the attention of agriculturists particularly to this point , because nitrogen is of importance in making the plant produce a good crop . It is by affording plants a sufficient quantity of nitrogen , as well as other food in the soil , that we must form the basis of a crop .
Mauomepax Pilgrims.—A Letter From Algier...
Mauomepax Pilgrims . —A letter from Algiers contains the following;— " 1 have just witnessed a ceremony very curious to European eyes—the return to their families of the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca . Their approach had been announced " on the previous day , and the whole Arab population went out to meet them , some on horseback , others oi \ loot , with their wives and children . Some of them carried flags of various colours , and many of them kept firing off their guns , without which there can be no f ' Ote with this singular people . I joined the cortege , and , after proceeding for some time in the midst of this picturesque group , I perceived tltc lookcd-for travellers approaching . The whole party , with whom I was ,
commenced singing , or rather shouting , in cllOl'US' O , pilgrims , in the House of God have you seen the frophct of the Most High V ' We have seen him , and we left him at Mecca ; lie there prays , fasts , performs his ablutions , and reads the holy books , ' was the reply . _ After which the party hastened to salute them , to kiss their garments , and to oiler them hospitality . Happy was ho who could entertain thcni i m order to draw down upon his tent the blessing of the All Powerful . Each of the pilgrims had brought from Mecca small chaplcts ,. ' which they distributed to their relations and friends , and also phials filled with the water of Birzcnizem , ;> a fountain in the holy house . This water is kept " to snrinklc-over the
bodies of tbe dead . The Arabs ' consider tbe journey to be attended with much danger , as tho road is infested with robbers , and the expedition occupies f ' roin twelve to fifteen months , during which have innumerable hardships to undergo ancc of which tli ' ey , however , hope will of their obtaining pardon for their sins ''" LvriiEdecline oflife the most medicine , for giving tone and strcngtj mach , and acting at the same time healthful aperient , ia' "Frampton ' s P a family restorative which has conlevfflW sential benefits upon those who have recourse to its health-restoring aid ; apply to themselves the well-known speare— «« Thwghi look old , yet I am strong
Tjmie They. , Ftj^J&Ih Bcjpu^Ejgijn."I?/...
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Citation
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Aug. 9, 1845, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/ns2_09081845/page/7/
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