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mmm-^ofcements I Auousi >, 1845. THE NORTHEEN STAR. !_
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"And I -will war, at least in words, (Au...
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* so obscure, in fact, that the Alike Co...
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Isvxm Ascext of Mr ^ Greex, ix-jhs Balloon,
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WITH 1-iEEWOHKS, FKOM VAVHlALb U.4.BDE.V...
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CmtstoottUeme
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ggnmltmr an* movtimltrnt
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FIELD-GARDEN OPERATIONS. For the Week co...
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Dung Mixens.—-Behind tlic cow-house in t...
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MAuoMEnAX Pilgrims.—A letter from Algier...
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those who have fortunately haifhaui rest...
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Transcript
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Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
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Mmm-^Ofcements I Auousi ≫, 1845. The Northeen Star. !_
mmm- _^ _ofcements I _Auousi > , 1845 . THE NORTHEEN STAR . !_
"And I -Will War, At Least In Words, (Au...
" And I -will war , at least in words , ( Aud—should my chance so happen—de _^ ds ) , ¦ Wi th all who war with Thought !" « I think I hear a little bird , who sings The people by and by will be the stronger . *" - _—Btsos ,
ITALY , AUSTBIA , AND TIIE POPE . SO . HI . Tress of matter last week prevented us continuing Mr . M azzisi ' s revelations of thc state of Italy : we aow return to the subject . jiaving disposed of the educational part of the inquir / , -Mr . Mazzixi next takes up thc financial and commercial state of Venetian-Lombardy . We must refer our readers to the pamphlet for the tables and official statements cited by Mr . Mazzini . The following extract affords a glimpse of the financial and commercial wronp suffered by Italy at the hands of her chief oppressor : —
I say once more , the sun , the climate , fhe extraordinary fertility of the soil , the intelligent , active , and victorious _genios of the Lombard people , struggle in oar favour . Some reforms which the revolution bestowed , and which the restoration could not take away , twenty-nine years of peace , andthe natural progress of things , help the struggle in its eloir success ; but I say that wherever the hand of Government is seen , there also is to be found an obstacle and a hindrance . Thc hand of Hie Austrian Government is to be seen in tlie enormous import duty on colonial produce , on wines and spirits , upon shins either raw or dressed , on spun cotton , « tc _, which creates the contrahand trade , aud ruins Milan , the great emporium for the merchandise of the country , by ordering matters so that similar articles costless in those provinces which border on the frontiers : tbe prohibition of foreign manufactures ot silk , cotton , and wool , produce the same result , owing to the insufficiency of the supply -manufactured by the State , the immoderate competition ofthe dealers , andthe
low prices asked for contraband goods brought in from without . Confined within kotow territorial limits , debarred entrance into the other Italian countries which _are-a market for foreign _manutactnres , wanting thc direction of au Institute for industrial instruction , the Lombardo-Venetiau uianufactuters cannot satisfy the demand cither with regard toouantity , variety , or beauty , ner produce goods on equal terms with other countries . The hand of the Austrian Government means a system of laws and custom-house regulations which impedes the free _circulation of manufactures and colonial produce , -even within the country , and inflicts a due on the _proprietor of a manufacture , every time a few kilogrammes are surprised in tteir transit from one town of the state to another , without a license takeu out from thc place of _starting ; subjecting the -merchants , in the frontier districts especially , to the liability of having both their -warehouses and dwellings seal tiled by day and night , and often several times a week . Tke hand of the Austrian Government means a code of finance so involved and so
obscure * that chance and caprice reign absolute sovereigns iu the Lombardo-Venetiau Provinces , imposing taxes upon arts and industry at random , to be extorted by _violence ; to which -for the commercial man is added the Mercantile tax , imposed by the Camera di Commercia : it means the increase of thc expense of protesting hills of exchange , the minimum of which is in Austrian lircs S . C _4 , even for an amount below a hundred livres ; by which means the Government fattens -upon poverty , since tlie number of protested-bills increases in proportion to the badness of trade . The hand of tlie Austrian Corcniraciit means that unjustifiable act by which , in 1810 , the Lomhardo-Venetian public debt , known as theJ / _cjiteiOM & ardo-Yeneto , wa 3 increased by nearly twenty-fire millions 1 , to obtain a heavy loan from the greatest usurer in Europe
and some of his . colleagues—an act -which spread distrust among the _holdvrs of coupons in onr ilonte , and knocked down to 111 ( aud at first even to IOC ) a live per cent , stock which was before selling at about 118 . The hand of Vie Austrian Government means the enormous tax on postage ( forty centimes from Milan to I'iaccuza , fourteen leagues distant from each otlier , CO for lti * ggio and Modena , 80 for Dologna and Florence , & c ) , thus restricting more and more the intercourse between Lomlardy and Central Italy , already so circumscribed by custom-house regulations : % it means the entire absence of a jury or tribunal of arbitration , to decide disputes conscientiously and with local knowledge , tedious process , and a faulty organisation of tlie commercial tribunal , before which the pleadings can only . be through
au advocate , and where facts are always neglected for forms . - \ Vhat between the system whieh prohibits the introduction of raw material , and the restricted market , wc are forced iu Lombardy to export our ran-produce and to receive in return manufactured goods at high prices . Thecareless traveUcr _. passing rapidly through our populous towns , is astonished at the luxury displayed in tliem : he does not know that in winter the hospitals are filled with men who feign _themsulves ill , in order that they may receive there the means of sustenance ihey could not find elsewhere * , lie sees with admiration houses and palaces rise as by magic ; hut he does not know that those are no signs of prosperity , but only an investment forced upon capital , which cannot run the hazard of any enterprise of commerce , whilst trade is so -hampered and stationary .
"What has the Austrian -Government ever done to establish harmony and unity in the relations of commercial anil industrial policy ! It has adopted the decimal system in its relations with the governed ; but at the same time permitting the governed themselves to make use of ancient systems in then- reciprocal dealings , so that a few -leagues distance between town and town causes a difference in ihe circulation of money , and mate a variation in the weights and measures . What has the Austrian Government done towards turning to practical use _. bj laige hydraulic works for the benefit of agriculture , the copious streams which flow through JLombardy % "What lias it done towards making roads to communicate between place and place * I ' _ailhful to its rule of impeding progress as much as possible , except so far as to take the direction of every enterprise it cannot succeed iu hindering , it has done its best to throw delays in the way of the
numerous projected lines of railroad ; but so soon as the _ilonza railroad was finished , it hastened to share the success by levying a per centage on the profits , through a new _^ pos tal duty , and by claiming for its own benefit the whole undertaking as soon as the lease expires : it has done the same by the celociferi . _Terhaps , sit , you say undertakings like these ought not . to be instigated by Government , but that theyoughtto be left to private enterprise . I have not much faith in the . miracles oflaUsez faire , laissezpasser ; but , however , that may be , recollect sir , that I am speaking of a country despotically governed , where the spirit of association is seen with au eye of suspicion ; I am speaking of a country where individual activity is checked and crushed in a thousand ways . "When Government declares that the citizens of a country are to be kept in the perpetual tutelage of slaves , it implicitly undertakes to act for them and to direct their affairs .
Mr . _Mizzixi next reviews the administration of justice in Lombard—Venetian Italy , wliich owing to the complexity and tardiness of the proceedings , the multiplicity of laws , the enormity of judicial expenses , the bad _amusement ofthe prisons , and the defective organisation of the _magistracy , is of the worst rossiWe character . Eighty to ninety -volumes form the government collection of laws ; " to which must be added the codes civil and criminal , the code of those misdemeanours of which the police takes cognisance , and the code of custom-house dues and regulations , the high degrees of the judicial hierarchy—that is io say , where tliey who preside in the courts have to decide on questions wherein a __ perfect knowledge of the Italian and ite dialects is indispensable—are "filled by Germans who can hardly stammer the language . Mr . _il & _zznsisays : —
Those concerned in civil suits are often -weaned out , and renounce tbdr claim , resigning themselves to thefirst Joss . But these defects have a move serious influence in . criminal causes . On the third of September 1 S _10 , an individual was brought up from the prison of Cotuo , who iad been confined there _fonttro years without hariny behig examined . But not to dwell longer on special cases , tlie occurrence of which however rarely is sufficient to condemn the system , I assert that _criminal causes generally last / or years . Ill clothed , ill fed , tlie accused languish all the time in prisons which usually are unhealthy ; and whare _, if they do not die of _seasvy , they often come ont imbecile , unable to work , or at least utterly unable to in
procure any : crowded , ten , fiftees , twenty together the same prison , where the innweent perhaps , or those guilty . of rcry slight crimes , are mingled with ruflians and assassins , they come out asfrom aschool ofinfamy , utterly depraved . And I say , that when the cystem by virtue of which these men are placed there , relies on such a basis asacrcsyssihe proceedings , and thefateofthe accused is plated in & e hands of a couneiflor invested at the same time with the functions of defender and Judge , one can neither -conceive nor understand euloginms bestowed on the _administration of Austrian justice , unless they are dictated by bad faith or an unpardonable ignorance on a point in KiiichjnBlions of men are _eoocerned .
But the worst feature of Austrian despotism remains to fee shown—tbe system of cspionage and police rule . There are ifl _Lombanly alone 300 police agents , S 72 gendarmes . 1233 police guards , with a whole army . of guardians , under-gnardians , gaolers , secondmi , guanis of fortified places , _Ac . There are guards ofthe frontiers , ofthe eamwunes , ofthe woods and forests , of the towns , all under ths control of the police . There are spies of the viceroy ofthe governor , ofthe director of police , of the _commisKiries , of the delegates , of the _district-commis--saries , of the bishops , of the provosts , acting independcctlv of each other , but all joining the main root
of the supreme police at Vienna . "All this mass / Bays _Jir . Mazzisi , " all this iniquitons mob ( I do not include the army , though that also is a tool of the police ) , has for ite principal object the search after and suppression of national opinion . With this , in _apolitical regard , everything it can do is right , cverrtmng is permitted to it . Every outrage is allowed ; the citizen has ho longer even the shadow of protection . _Itisawarfere , a dishonest warfare / without pity , without shame , carried on in darkness , by agents who combine all the tricks of chicane with fhe cold-Wooded cruelty of an Iroquois . "
Mr . Mazzki draws the following awful picture of ihefortnres inflicted on the suspected patriots in the Austrian dungeons , and the hellish system of espionage , of which they are the victims . It must be remembered that Jir . MmiKi is addressing Sir James _Ghaham , who , if he has a particle of _conscience left , _musisi trefc feel the _tertares of remorse , sha » e ,
"And I -Will War, At Least In Words, (Au...
and 8 elf-dete 8 tation ,. when remembering the vile part he has performed in hel ping to furnish victims to glut the cold-blooded _savageiy of _AIettersich an _^ Co . Have you ever read , sir , two books from the pens of political sufferers at the Austrian Spielberg , Silvio Pellico and Andryane , containing the account of their _sufferings , written with so much moderation that one of them has been allowed to be printed and reprinted in Italy ? If you have not , sir , endeavour to find time , between tllC issuing - of one warrant and another , to glance over them . Perhaps when you learn the vengeance that overtakes political offenders in Austrian Ital y §—when you see ,
beside the horrors alluded to iu the note , the torture of hunger , literally of hunger , inflicted upon them ; when you _seel'ietro Maroucelli losing hisleftlegin _conscyuence of the weight and pressure of bis fetters—losing it by amputation at the upper part of the thigh , because the Governor of Spielberg , having received his prisoner with two legs , was obliged to give him up in the same condi . tion , and therefore could not allow the operation to take place until he had received a sanction from Vienna * perhaps , I say , you will then have aglimmering perception of the terrible responsibility which is attached to the communication of intelli gence obtained from the correspondence of any foreigner over whom you may play the spy on behalf of Austria .
And do you know , sir , how people reach Spielberg from lombardy ? Are you aware hew slight a matter when once the suspicions of Austria are excited , is sufficient to precipitate the victim tkither ! Take tlie trials of 1 S _20-21 , they will tell you . They will tell you how-Colonel Silrio _Moretti « as condemned to fifteen years of the carcere duro , upon what were called indicial proofs , founded on false statements nude against him by some of _hisfeUow-accused , when , in consequence of a report of his suicide spread through the prisons by the Government , they heliered him past danger ; but retracted b y than when they saw him alive before the court . They
will tdl you of LieutDnait Giovanni Baehiega sentenced to fifteen yeavs of the carare duro , as convicted not _only of avowed liostile intentionstowards tlie Imperial House of Austria , bnt as disposed to resist it arms [ in _liand : and this because he replied " Certainly" to the judge ' s demand , " Wouldyoubear armsfor Italy , if some day slie should rise nationally ? " They will tell you of ttezia , an ex-Captain of Engineers , condemned to three years of the carcere duro in the castle of Laybach , because he gave an ambiguous reply to the judge ' s question of " whether he would have denounced a Carbunaro if he had known him to be such- , " aud this was ruled to be an answer in the negative .
Do liotfaney , sir , thatthcseareexcepiioual eases , which might have been produced from the terror excited in Austria by the insurrections of Uaplcs and Ficdmont : I could show many similar examples in the trials of 1 S 31 andlS § 3 . But it is not in these iniquitous condemnations to Spielberg , these coups _oVidal of Austrian _; ii . « _ti «; , tbat lies the wound which festers in Lombardy : it is possible , when nationality is a belief , not a reaction , to leave Spielberg , like my estimable friend Dr . _foresti , calm , unmoved , tlie same as the man of fifteen years before . It is thegeneial system , at work round each individual—at work each day of the year , each hour of the _day—endoavonrins to crush _uvulcr mistrust , suspicion , and fear , the moral faculties of our youth , to which I would point : it is tlie brutal exhibition of physical force , from tbelevelled cannons on the Duowo at Jlilan , mute but eloquent symbols , down to the insolence . of tlie police-guards _jdio encumber the streets day and night—from the base and brutal manner in which tlie Austrian oflicers treat the
_j-ouiig wen of the University of Faria on the least appearance of diserder , down to tlie liberty granted to custom-house officers to tire on smugglers in their flight _? itis the arbitrary and frequent refusal of passports for foreign countries , and even for the interior , combined with tlic enormous penalties on those who dare to do without them . ; the unlimited and irresponsible power of arrest given to the police ; the prohibition of inviting one ' s friends toa ball without previously giving notice tO the police : it is thc habitual violation of Government amnesties , such as , forinstauce , caused De Xuigi to be refused permission to exercise his profession of advocate , although the words of the decree in the faith of which he returned did not contain any such restriction ; such as threw in prison Lancet ti , another amnestied emigrant ; who , at the end of two years , ruined hy his hard treatment , was set at liberty to die , invoking curses on his persecutors : it is tlie omnipotence granted to the superior agents of the _x > oliee , going even to impiety , and
producing , in what concerns political cases , such monstrous facts as that of the Count Bolza forcing a sacristan to give him a consecrated wafer , which lie administered himself in 1833 to one Bianchi , who was in prison and dying , to do away with all excuse for admitting within the walls even a priest ; the violation—but tliat will not strike you , Sir . James , as anything very immoral—the violation of private correspondence ; tlte precettoin the name of the police and without any interference on the part of tlie tribunals , forbidding hundreds -of individuals from leaving thc town for an indefinite time : and beyond all this , it is the sy stent of _espionage , organ ised on such a scale that in the city of Milan alone its . costs the sum of near 200 , 000 Austrian livres a month , invading the peace of families , breaking the bonds of friendship , scattering tic seeds of _selfism and corruption , gaining its ends by calumny , going even - the length of provoking crime when it can . discover none to reveal—distributing revolutionary documents with one hand aud signing a dnnnciaetion with the other . Next week we shall exMbifc the abominations of the Papal Government .
* So Obscure, In Fact, That The Alike Co...
* so obscure , in fact , that the Alike Council , by whose agency thc code was issued , was obliged some seven or eight years ago to call hi the assistance of a Royal- Lornbavd Commission , to settle the bestinterpretation tobe put on certain clauses . t The debt known as the Monte Lombardo-Teneto , which devolved on Austria with our provinces in 1815 , was tlie quota falling to us , on a proportional division with other Italian States , of the public debt of the Kin _/ rdom of Italy , known as the Monte _Xapolcone ; which in its turn partly arose from the recognition and transmutation of tlie old provincial debts . There is now talk of apt-ejected addition of fifteen millions more . £ Forthe convenience of a private ] etter-bo . v , commercial men pay five centimes extra for every letter .
$ The condemned shall be _ confined in a dungeon , secluded from all communication , with only so much light and space as is necessary to sustain life ; he shall be constantly loaded witli heavy fetters on the hands and feet : he shall never , except during tlie hours of labour , be without a chain attached to a circle of iron round his body , his diet shall be bread and water , a hot ration every second day ; but never any animal food—his bed to be composed of naked planks , and he shall be forbidden to see any one —without exception . " — Such is the definition of the carcere _ditrlssimo iu tlie Penal Code , § 14 . The hot ration ( cibo ealdo ) consists of slices of bread steeped iu hot water , and flavoured with tallow . It is a common thing for those condemned to the carcere duro to wear twenty-pounds weight of chains ; tliey are worked like galley-slaves , and have neither light nor paper nor books * : never , except sometimes by an extraordinary favour on Sundays ( to attend mass , ) leaving their cold and humid cells .
Isvxm Ascext Of Mr ^ Greex, Ix-Jhs Balloon,
Isvxm Ascext of Mr _^ Greex , _ix-jhs Balloon ,
With 1-Ieewohks, Fkom Vavhlalb U.4.Bde.V...
WITH _1-iEEWOHKS , FKOM VAVHlALb U . 4 . _BDE . VS . _—UH Monday night this celebrated aerial voyager undertook the perilous feat of a night ascent in his balloon , displaying fireworks of a novel and extraor dinary description from the car . The gardens were crowded . The balloon selected _byTMr . Green was the Albion , formerl y thc property of Mr . Hampton , an intrepid aeronaut . Mi ' . Green considerably enlarged it , and it will now contain 2 G _. 000 cubic feet of gas , and stands CO feet in height . Mr . Darby , thc artist to the gardens , had the arrangement of the fireworks , which were attached to a frame or wheel , and this was suspended to the car by a line of about 10 feet in length , attached to a swivel , so that it
might spin freely in the air , and thus increase the _efieefcof the display . Thc frame consisted of three conjunct wheels ) the radius of each being six feet , thc circumference of the entire frame 36 feet , and the separation between each wheel 15 inches . Mi * . Green was provided with a regulating winch in the car , SO that he was enabled to wind up or lower the frame with the fireworks at pleasure . The fireworks consisted of variegated lights , Italian gerbs , with les petit ctoilcs , coloured Roman caudles , French jets , and Chinese streams of fire , concluding with an enormous bouquet of coloured fires . Mr . Green , on ascending the car , stated that this was his three hundred and fifth ascent , and tliat it was twenty-one years since he first ascended with fireworks , on which
occasion he alighted at King George ' s farm at Richmond . The car was then attached hrthc balloon , Mr . Green previously depositing in it his barometer , a large lantern of peculiar construction , his compass , map , a guide-line of about a thousand feet , grapnel , and between two and three hundred weight of ballast , in bags -varying irom ten to twenty pounds each ; likewise a number of coloured lights to assist him in his descent . The frame mth the _fiveworka _was then affixed to the car , great care being taken to prevent its position being reversed from the horizontal to the vertical , as ia the case of Madame Blanchard , who lost her life in ja night ascent ai Paris , the f rame , by
an accident , becoming reversed , and the fireworks consequently playing into the car , instead of beneath the balloon , ignited the silk , and an explosion ensued . At eleven . o ' clock the signal for ascent was given . Mr . Greea immediately seized the "jiberating iron" with one hand , and lighting the fusee with the other , . the ' ascent took place , amidst the cheers of the assembled thousands outside the gardens , and of thc company within . The fireworks in a few seconds were discharged , and a more brilliant aerial exhibition was never witnessed , lhe balloon took a northern direction , and itwas generally considered tbat Mr . Green would land in Middlesex . The ascent vfill be repeated .
Govxrkmexi has very properly made a- grant of £ 20 , 000 for the relief of the sufferers by the gi'eat fires at Quebec . _Asomeb Ct'HE wnE . Y . u . MOsr at _Dbath ' s doob , nr Hoixo war s Pills—Mis . Williams , alady ol fortune , residing at Glapham-rise , was given np oi the most eminent medical men , who all agreed that * she iiad what is termed " no inside left , " her stomach , lirer . and heart were in a most disordered condition , and altogether so generally debilitated , as to he scarcely able to walk twentyyards without fainting ; however , in two montlis , hy undergoing il course ot this invigorating and life-preserving medicine , she has regainedher former health _73 » d strength , . < ind can now walk twenty miles a day ,
Cmtstoottueme
_CmtstoottUeme
TO TBE XDlTOB . OF TBE _KOBTHEKS STAB ; Sib , —The letter which reaches you under this cover was originally designed for publication in the _JVafion newspaper , as the proper vehicle to contain arefutation of the slanderous statements and uncharitable sentiments transferred from the lips ofour very Irish _"Liberatob . " to its columns . Such , however , is the state of things here with regard to the Conciliation Hall censorship exercised over the press , with which it pretends to disclaim all connection , that the Editor of this best of our Dublin "Liberal" prints , politel y _retotwidme the MS . iu ft note ,
stating that he declined publishing it , "lest evil instead of good might arise" from its appearance . The Editor has a perfect right to protect his pecuniary interests , and perhaps if he fears that" evil" may accrue to mc , on the "hooting" system , I ought to thank him for his watchful tenderness , but having already borne the denunciation of thc great leader , I am callous to his abuse , and will not place truth in abeyance , lest evil may fall on the enemies of toleration , the foes of charity , if not of Christianity . I trust , sir , you will do me the justice denied by the JVation as an old reader and admirer of the Star , W . II . DroTT .
CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY . To the Editor of theAution . ' Sir , —It may be asserted of your journal , and without the suspicion of flattery , thatit is more fearlessly independent and more magnanimousl y just , than any other newspaper claiming for itself the designation '' Liberal " in Ireland , for while with unequalled ability and unrivalled spirit it brings the whole artillery of literature to bear upon the national foe , still the courtesies af civilised warfare are preserved , and even the enemy must allow that his assailants , and in instances I trust to be multiplied , his conquerors—are gentlemen . If sueh be the character established by the conductors of the A ' alion amongst foreign adversaries , much morehave they gained for themselves , amongst their own countrymen all the
respect and admiration , which must ever be consequent on pursuing the path of principle with manliness , moderation , and justice—allowing no merely factious or sectarian bias to warp or distort the ever glorious truth ; allowing fairly for the honest prejudices of men who have been taught to differ from them , ami reciprocating esteem with those who as manfully combatfor their peculiar convictions . Such a line of conduct has earned for the Sation reverence , aye , and authority , toe , even amongst the Orangemen of the north , from which I have but just returned , or I would before this have claimed on the part of outraged " Civil and Religious Liberty" a corner in the valuable columns of your journal . I claim it HOW , 80-lemnly aud emphatically claim it , as a rightful concession to eternal justice , to _slanduved Christianity , and to insulted liberty .
In the Nation of the 12 th of July , I find the following passage : — "If there be infidels amongst us ihey must have the hypocrisy to conceal their principles , fov well they know that if they were to make a profession of them , they would be hcoted from soeiety . "—Speech of Mr , Daniel O'Connell at " Conciliation Hall on Monday , July 7 th , as reported in theSation . Now , Mr . Editor , as a person deeply conversant with the tone of . popular feeling , I ask _j-Qu , do you _rcaMy believe the above statement , or do you not agree with ine that it is unfounded in fact and grossly slanderous upon the Christians of the present day ? What ! if a man happens to be so "invincibly ignorant , " so hopelessly -obtuse , as to arrive at conclusions , on matters mystical and miraculous , in accordance with those entertained by
_JBayh , Gibbon , Kosseau _/ Owen _, and others of the l'lulosophic east , and if he be honestly simple enough to candidly express his theological sentiments , do you really believe thatthe good Christians of these days would ferociously " hoot" him out of society ? or being allowed to go as fatas "hooting" by their " moral force" commander , try perhaps to change his sentiments by alterations on his cercbal region—such as raisins : a " bump" on hi « " veneration" department , & c . Seriously , sir , if such bo the case , what advances , after all our clamouring , have we made in the true understanding , and real practice of civil and religious liberty ! And if it be not the case , must not the man be deeply depraved in heart by the
venomous taint of a relentless bigotry , who dares to give utterance to such sentiments for liimself—much more , to charge them on the entire bod y oftlio "orthodox ! "' If such sentiments are not entertained by the Christians of Ireland—and I do not believe they are—will any of them have manliness to come forward now , to disavow and to repudiate them ?—Will thoy show that their _cuinnr iscqual to their _Faitli ? or are we , indeed , to sit down in tha belief that "Toleration , " however tulUed about , is a doctrine which only includes those sects which are numerous enough to defend themselves , while civil excommunication , "hooting out of society , " is to be the gentle reproof with which honest conscientious dissent from popular and current creeds is to be met ?
Sir , we cannot disguise the fact—such is the exposition of Christianity , given by one of its most illustrious lay defenders in the nineteenth century—it has no bowels for the unbeliever ; thc wall of partition ( according to Mr . O'ConneU ) between Jew and Gentile might as well have never been thrown down ; and , had he lived in the days of the apostles I doubt not but he would have resisted St . _T _.-iul oh Circumcision and St . Peter on Pork ! . ¦' . ' . But I fearlessly demand of Mr . O'Connell , where , in the Bible , except in the bloody dispensation of the Jcirs _, from which the new law that God "in the'fullness of , time " thought proper to deliver to the' world , ' redeemed' us , he finds ground for the inhuman doctrine of " hooting men out of society" for tlieir religious opinions , however
erroneous . I am confidant that thc Christian priestlioou of Ireland will make no such discovery in tlio New Testament , and that if they did , they would blush to find thc uncharitable record there . And shall the arrogance of any layman , no matter what his celebrity or authority in other matters , lead him to fulminate his anathemas against men who , morally , may be as good as himself at least % - \ Vhatis it to me that tbe fires of Smithfield bo extinguished by civilising processes of time , if _ITani to be dared to come forth , in order that I may be' destroyed—for if I be hooted out of society _) made a pariah iti the land of my birth , I am socially annihilated or obliged to remain silent with that less of self-respect , which ever must wait upon hypocrisy enforced ? Better be murdered at once than driven from the haunts and sympathies of men .
But mark , sir , the inconsistency of Mr . O'Connell : he is the advocate ofthe Jews , not , I amsuve from interested motives as other great men are , and yet the Jews do most cordially detest the memory of Christ as an impostor , who troubled their Rabbis and blasphemed their God . Did not he ( Mr . O'C . ) deeni Raphael a renegade iniidel Jew , and though a kind of Chrysalis Christian , " a most incomprehensible vagabond , " sufficiently good to represent tlie Christian _Jconstitueney of Carloir ? And did he not select for his own coadjutor in administering the parliamentary rights of the Catholics of Dublin , a gentleman named Iluttcn _, an extreme . Unitarian , who , being true to his own principles , must repudiate the divinity of Christ , even if he allow tlie virginity of his mother ; nay , he ( Mr . O'C . ) then hurled civil-excommunication against the pious timid , who from a religious scruple hesitated to vote for this gentleman .
Truly , sir , Mr . O'ConneU appears to have vacillated on the question of religious liberty to quite as great an extent as upon the subject of Poor Laws , and only to have got as far at any time as what philosophers call the " pivot" point . He seems now , indeed , to have abandoned "toleration" altogether , and changed his sentiments as completely on the subject of Christian charity as on thatof " mixed education . " God grant that his next aberration be not on " repeal , " for I am content to count the slight oscillation towards federalism wliich you , sir , corrected as an error , rather more venial than theslip with regard to the - " wings" so unmercifully clipped by poor Jack Lawless , whose soul may God asspillsize .
in sending you this letter , sir , I have acted both ou impulse and with deliberation . I consider that libertycan never be said to exist whilst any class among men are oppressed . 1 think it opposed to the genius of Christianity as well as the plain dictates of justice , to exercise terrorism over the variations of human thought . In all ages , some of the most celebrated men , whether for scientific and literary attainments , for public virtue or for private worth , have bjen of what is maliciously termed the " infidel" school—tliey exist largely in Prance , England , America , and every country of progress at present , and there are some of them in Ireland too , notwithstanding what Mr . O'Connell asserts to the contrary .. To these men I would extend the protection ofthe law , and the courtesies of society , _makin-j them for their actions alone , like any Other sect , responsible . I have argued the matter both as a Christian and as a Deist , without avowing myself either ; what has the world to do with my
opinions : I oppugn no man for his . But I claim for ail what cadi demands—freedom of thought and liberty of speech , and though I should again be denounced as a " fellow , " and a " miscreant , " aye , sir , even should you belauded for the " praiseworthy propriety" with which you may refuse me the insertion of this letter , still wilt I struggle undismayed , to assert that liberty , without which life is disrobed of half Us dignity , avid to hold up to the moral indignation of the world , the base betrayers of their mission , who , with lips absolutely hired to preach freedom in its fullest extent , daily give utterance to sentiments totally subversive of tlic ends tliey themselves affcet to propose , and whilst thus stultifying former propositions , forget tliat an intelligent foe will not fail to note the discrepancies of their speeches aud the spuriousness of their doctrines—retarding the great cause of human progression , although most unjustly , on account ; of the imperfections of its loudest , I will not say its most sincere , advocates , lest I should inflict a wound on truth .
I trust I may be acquitted of any presumption in publishing this letter . Ko man is . too humble , and every man in a free community has the right to be beard . I am notsatisfied with a _so-far-slialt-tliou-go-and-no-farther sort of freedom of opinion . Intolerance must . be altogether given up ; indeed , I had begun to hope that expediency had dug its grave , and justice consigned it to oblivion in that peace which it had long denied the world . Sacred for ever he the rights of conscience ! We would do well to imitate our transatlantic brethren . A convention of "infidels" met the other day in America , who were neither "hooted" nor maltreated , though an ortho . dox journal passed a good joke enough on the occasion , _bysaying thattiioy looked as if they fell out with God Almighty for making them so ugly , the majority of their faces being such as I . avatcr would not countenance .
Strong in my own motives , Mr . Editor , putting faith in your fairness , aud Uopiug to arrest the xUe practice ot sectarian denunciation , by el » iroing liberty , b . olji civil a » d rcli _^ ousforman , whether Watt , white , _Cln-istjau _, Pagan , or Jew . I remain , with profound respect , your _obedient servant , 24 , North _Kinr-strcet . IV . II . _PWJ ,
Ggnmltmr An* Movtimltrnt
_ggnmltmr an * _movtimltrnt
Field-Garden Operations. For The Week Co...
_FIELD-GARDEN OPERATIONS . For the Week _comnwncinoMonday , Aug . li . th , 1813 . [ Extracted from a Diaix * of Actual Operations on five small farms on the estates of the late Mrs . i > . Gilbert , near _kaubourne , in Sussex ; and on several model farms on the estates of the Earl of Dartmouth at _a _^ ithwaite _, in . . Yorkshire , published by Mr . Nowell , o r arnlcyTyas , near Huddersfield , in order to guide _otuet * possessors of field gardens , by showing them what laboui-s ought to be undertaken on tfceir own lands . The farms selected as models are—First . Two school farms at Willingdon and Eastdean , of
five acres each , conducted by tf . Cruttenden and John Harris . Second . Two private farms , ' of five or six acres : one worked by Jesse Piper , the other by John Dumbrell—the former at Eastdean , the latter at _Jevington—a \ l of them within a few miles , of Eastbourne . Third . An industrial school farm lit slaithwaite . Fourth . Several private model farms near the sameplace . The consecutive operations ill these reports will enable the curious reader to compare the climate md , agricultural value of the south with the north of England . The Dunr is aided by "Notesand Observations " from the pen of Mr . Nowell , calculated for the time-and season , which we subjoin .
"The wisest men—the greatest philosophers—after in vain seeking for happiness in every variety of pursuit , have found it in the cultivation of the ground , " _N _' _otE . —The school / arms are cufti « ated by logs , _^ _vh _$ in return for three hours' teaching in the morning , give three hours of their labour in the afternoon for the master ' s benefit , which renders the schools _sjblfsurroRTiso . Wc believe that at Famly Tyas sixseventlis of the produce of the school farm will be assigned tothe boys , and one-seventh to the master , who will receive the usual school fees , help the boys to cultivate their land , and teach them , in addition to reading , writing , tfce ., to convert their j > roduce into bacon , by attending to pig-keeping , which at Christmas may be divided , after paying rent and levy , amongst them in proportion to their services , and bemadethusindirectly to reach their parents in a way the most grateful to theirfeelings . ]
SUSSEX . Moxday— Willingdon School . No report for the week , _pi'obably the little boys out with the fanners . Piper . Heaping wheat . Dumbrell , Digging up tare __ _- ( ground , ; and reaping wheat . Tuesday—Piper . Reaping wheat . DumbrcU . Digging up tare ground , reaping wheat , and hoeing turnips . Wednesday—riper . Cleaning pig stye , and reaping wheat . Dumbrell . Transplanting swede turnips , digging up tare ground , and -reaping wheafc and oats . Thursday—Piper , Iteapingwhoat . Dumbrell , Mowing oats , and reaping wheafc . _FiuuAY—Piper . Mending lucerne with liquid . Dumbrell ., Heaping oats , and wheat . Saturday—Piper . Finished wheat reaping , andpulling . peas . _^ Dumbrell ., Mowing oats , reaping wheat , and emptying the privy pails .
COW-FEEIHNO . Piper . Cows are feeding upon white turnips , grown upon the land where the rye and tares came off Jasfc spring ! J DumbrelL During the week one cow grazed in the day . and fed morn and even with Mus . of cabbage . And one cow and heifer stall-fed entirely , with _lOilbs . of tares .
Dung Mixens.—-Behind Tlic Cow-House In T...
Dung Mixens . — -Behind tlic cow-house in tlie main yard you should have a spacious area , divided by a roadway in the middle , and . allowing on citiier side a roomy quadrant slmped floor , upon whicli to compost tlic manure ejected from . the-cow-house- It should be enclosed by a wall , acting- as a breastwork
to tlie manure heap when tovmed , which will prevent evaporation , and escape of liquid from its sides , by restoring ' what * filtvates to the floor of the mixen . This yard is to - be your agrieultural laboratory ; for truly , many chemical changes , although invisible to you , will there be effected , and a great variety of valuable products obtained for future use . As the dung mixen , which contains these products , is a most important _ajjent—ifc is a thing for you to be very proud of . You may send across the seas to the Chincha islands , or to Ichaboe , for guano , * but in a dang mixcu , properly compounded , you will find , to a certain extent , all the _inirredienls that give that excellent manure its value .
Task , —In putting down the tank , or forming the floors fur these inixciis , all your care will be required so that none of your , fluids may be lost .. The best place for the , tank will be near the entrance to the composting ' yard , partly under one of the mixens , but alsq ! , reacliiiig under the wall into the main yard , so tlvat its _contents may be inspected ftom without . Tliere * let , it , lie . placed , in a pit sunk ' within the ground ,,, 80 ! ,. low , . that , there , may bo ; a good descent towards it from , every part of the yard . It may be formed of bricks . j , or _, . whatis butter , of stones grooved aud jointed , and placed _iiponafioor . of well puddled clay at the . bottom , of ; the pit . After it is placed there , it _. hiusV be , cemented-well together , and surrdunded with clay puddle well beaten down at its sides , particularly at the bottom and corners . After thetank _'incompleted , let your gutters or channelled
stones be laid down to it in a direct line , across the floors . of the , mixens , Irom the cow-house , piggcrv , & e ., with cave ; and then let the whole _lloors be tilled , tothe height of . the channel stones , with well beaten clay puddle , at an inclination from the outer , walls in all directions . to them ., . Let these tight clay floors be paved with rough stones , so that all drabings from the mixen by falling upon them may be conveyed to the gutters , and joining the liquid in its passage from the cow-lodgp or other sources , both may flow without interruption to the tank . To promote this , the glutei's , as also that part of the tank which is intended to lie under the mixen , must be covered with loose stones , to prevent the intrusion of manure from above them . Let thewaterfromtlie , eves of thc building , and top water from every source , be led away altogether _fkom this __ yard axd . task ; and your manure manufactory , with the exception of placing the pump , will be completed .
Tank Liquid Pump . —Within , and near the doorway of , the composting yard , place down your pump , so that its working barrel being buried in the warm manure _Iicaj ) up to the cistern , the freezing of its contents during winter may be prevented . The lever of the pump must project over the wall , and be worked in the main yard , while its delivering pipe may be furnished with a wooden spout ei g ht or teii feet long , connected together by a swivel joint , round which it turns horizontally—inwards—over the manure , in order that the tank liquid being pumped may flow over either mixen—or outwards , into a
water barrel mounted upon wheels , standing in the main yard , from whence ifc becomes removed tothe growing crops , or applied to other purposes . Size of Task . —In regard to tlie size of tlie tank , one of five feet in length , three feet in breadth , and three feet in depth , has been found quite _sufficient for eight or ten head of cattle ; it will be filled generally in about seventeen days . Such a tank may be emptied , and its contents spread upon grass near the homestead in about an hour . In the West of Yorkshire , the cost of one of the above dimensions , exclusive of digging the pit , and the puddling , will be about fifty shillings . : _'*
.. _TEMroRAnv Task . —If a cottager , or his landlord , wishes to avoid expense , a good substitute will be found by sinking within the ground one . or two oil pipes , or sugar hogsheads , connected by a -tube at the bottom , ancl placing them upon a bed of puddled clay well beaten , having the sides wclL enwrapped with the same material ; as the girths decay , the vessels by external pressure will remain firmly united together and last many years , especially if thc inside be charred .. .- I must beg . -you ,. however , . during the fixing of these things , always to remember , and have uppermost in jour , mind , that a single aperture , through which a knitting needle could scarcely pass , may be the means of ; tapping your tank , and withdrawing part of its contents , while you remain in ignorance of its existence .
Method or Composting Manure . —Spread equally , and cover the whole of each mixen floor , with a layer of cow dung ,- horse litter , & c ., to the thickness of eight or ten inches , and keep tlie long straw nearest the floor . Then for every cart load of fresh dung , take 10 or 1216 s . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) pounded from the rock , which will cost you from 2 s . Gd , to 3 s . per _. cwt ., 8 [ jrinkle it over the swface oi * the layer of dung .. Bring in a load of mould from headlands , decaying roots , scouring of ditches , road scrapings , stubble , saw dust , indeed nothing can come amiss , and leaving it on the composting yard pavement , the cart may pass through the cow-lodge without turning round . Let the rubbish , so left , be handed to either mixen , and spread over the surface ; moreoverwhen
, you can , at intervals , obtain a load or two of earthy matter , you may spread it upon the other . In this statelet it remain as a covering , until you have a fresh , supply of dune under the manure _uooi-b , then fork over . the first itratum , mixing , the dung and mould or rubbish , well together , and proceed just as before , careful neither : to omit the gypsum , nor mould , in forming a second one . Previous to forming another , repeat the forking over of the previous layer , and after a few repetitions , pump _anddiffuse over the whole surface as much tank liquid as will completely saturate the manure heap , and any excess will fall back again into the tank ; and this repeat , irom time
to time , when it may be deemed necessary to do so . With many animals in the byves _, and much space m tke yard , you may thus create an enormous bulk of manure , rich , and uniformly mixed . _, Fumukr . _meajvs of exriciiino the _Mixei _* . —Your pigs must be continually supplied with fresh mould ; wnieh they will ; tread into the richest compost ; it may then be handed over to and compounded into the mixen . The night-soil _comport , l . creafter described , may be also used in the same _muniier . ¦ _PnOFER _MET 110 D . OT . COLhECTIXO IIUMAN _MaSURE . — A very ingenious method is followed bv the Eastbourne field-gardeners , in order to collect all the _jjxcrenien _litwns _mstfer voided in the privies : —An
Dung Mixens.—-Behind Tlic Cow-House In T...
ale cask with one end removed , large butter firkin , or tub , value about 2 s . 0 d ., is provided : a few inches below its top , two strong iron ears or handles , are firmly rivetted , for the convenience of removing it _. Two of these tubs arc usually placed under the privy scats , and when nearly filled arc easily removed to the composting shed by two persons , _eash taking hold Ofa handle . They are then turned upside down , and the contents received upon mould , and immediately composted with more mould , ashes , ' or other refuse , using S or lOlbs . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) for each pail full of materials . This mixture may be further enriched by the addition oi tank liquid , beating all well together to the consistency of mason ' s lime ; when spread upon tho floor of the shed it will soon dry spontaneously , und be found a most valuable top-dressing for every kind of crop , upon which it may be sown by hand , for all offensive smell is speedily removed by the aetion of the gypsum , and the retentive quality of the mould or ashes .
Purification op Cities . —[ "The annual loss in England , in liquid manure _itloiic , lias been cstim . tted . lt seven _milliots sterling !! " ]—Were this simple method adopted in town and country , then might we expect to sec British agriculture soon - flourish in full perfection . Liquid cxcreinentitious matter has become an article of trade in manufacturing districts ; why should not solid become the same ? Near every town undoubtedly there ought to be a regular Domestic Guano manufactory carried on , or contributed to , by the public scavengers , - and surely , ere long , " the collection of agents so important will claim the attention of men of capital and enterprise . Tubs with tight fitting lids and deep rims might be used for this purpose , to collect the soil in privies , be replaced , when
filled , by others , and borne , in covered well contrived vans , to the suburbs of our cites ; where , in open composting sheds , the domestic guano , or otlier mixtures hereafter described , might be fabricated . The ashes from coal fires , at the same time , might he separately tubbed , borne away , and afterwards used to compound with and assist in their desiccation . The agency of steam , also , could well be applied to dry such compounds , and of mechanical arrangements for beating up the ingredients . _TBysuch means all offensive smell in privies would be unknown , and the removal of their contents not be offensive . While tlio elaboration ot tliem would be found far less unpleasant than can be imagined ; of this the writer is fully convinced , from a close observation of the feelings of farm servants in its performance . In order that we may appreciate these neglected things at tlieir true value , let us attend to the following important observations of an eminent philosopher . " If
wc admit" says _Hoiissingault , " the liquid and solid excrements of man amounts on an average to lllbs daily ( 1 jib urine , and lib . of fccccs ) , and that both taken together contain 3 per cent of nitrogen , then in one year they amount to 511 M ., wliich contain 10 . 411 bs . of nitrogen , a quantity sufficient to yield thc nitrogen of SOOlbs . of wheat , rye , oats , or of flOOJbs . of barley . " And again , " Why" says Dr . Buckland , " should we go so far as the shores of Africa when we have the remedy within ourselves—the essence of ale and beer , and the quintessence of beef and bread and cheese 1 These are thc best of all possible manures , and why ? Because they restore to the land that which the corn and the ox have taken away ; because they restore things wliich the atmosphere cannot restore ; that clement cau furnish charcoal aud ammonia" to growing plants , "but not that nutritious phosphate of beef , nor the gluten which enters into the commodities of which beer is composed . "
LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY . Bv Professoh _Johxskw . If you take a portion of anything you raise for crors—of flour for example—and mix it with water so as to form it , and afterwards work ifc with water over a glass , letting the water fall into ifc , you will find the water become milky . Do this so long as tlic water which runs off the dough becomes milky , and afterwards you will find that the substance in youv hand has undergone a change , having become more sticky , and fibrous . If you allow the milky substance to settle , ifc will become clear , and there will remain at the bottom a white powder , which we call starch .
Now , the substance in your hand is called gluten , and the clear liquid at the bottom will contain sugar and gum . Thus '' you cau separate wheat flour into two parts , viz ., starch , the ponder remaining in thc glass : and gluten , the substance in your hand . The same would take place with any other vegetable matter ; for instance , if straw was cut into small pieces and pounded in a morier—with tlic difference , perhaps , that what would remain in the hand would consist wholly of woody fibre , which differs from gluten ; still there would be a quantity of gluten also . You thus find that there are three classes of substance obtained- — starch , gluten , and woody fibre . The learned Professor then referred to a Tabic stating thc average Composition of the usually Cultivated-Crops . cii I _rtrt S ; . So- ° > o - -n CO oo 0 . 2 _tc-l « _" * _" * rtCT !; : " - ' « J os _£ _*> - o ¦ _**** " P < « -J 5 ¦ ° * ' ho ¦ ' S _* » _'¦'*' ¦ W US « 9 ¦ a 3 * 5 X i : _3 oa ! s * _-i . _aiM-OMci-ti 0 tf 3 _g CSS j 1 * 'dHdi 3 M '' ji"lrtdoO - * ' _^ f _. _fii ' gj «/* _l ITS M > : — : ¦ ¦ . * J- w Z Tl H 13 5 Z"B So m io « o toce _* r-i : v 5 a _3 $ i p _>~ 3 " _TT _;*^— ~~ 5 ~ . : _^ _h PtIm ci _W _t-tltf ? ( _juaooeuaooianoooo I 3 3 , 2 § n L 0 _* ' " _"aOi ' _. 1 ' » " _5 * _HHH- » _* jj CQ *• 3 J ! s _» M _£ ¦ r ii """"" " ? 5 _S tn ? - O b _OW _3 0 10 _OOfJ 13 OC 0 l 013 C 0 C 0 OlO O BOO— . H 1 . - 3 M _i-J CI "J- rt r-t CI . Bet _*« _£ * . i-O _--r— . — . —— 7— . ** _..:..-. i i : _: i i i i : _g ::::::::::::::: w _*' . ' . ' . ' . X \ l ' . ' * ' . * , I ' , I c :::::: * . : : -. .:::: * _3 i ; _: ' . i : i _t * . i : i : ; c _:::::-. ::::: _* :::: ¦ a o : ' _t : ' _t : ' £ _• ; ; ' £ • • > , S : « ai \ _vjO \\ m g oi * > _R 5 g :. _5 . „ .. _Sga-. _-Spg'gg : > BO £ » tj _CUHO _^ _CD
Wheat , you will observe , contains 15 per cent , of husk or woody fibre , 55 per cent , of starch , and from 10 to 15 per cent , of gluten . There are several substances very analogous to gluten—for instance , the white of an egg , which is called albumen . Though it is . au animal production , it also exists in plants ; and the water when clean , in which you work the dough , contains a portion-of it . Yon will see that a plant contains starch , with gum and sugar ; gluten , with albumen , and husk or woody fibre . Such are the constituents of plants . If you take _stavch orsngar , anil put it into aretort , and apply heat to it , it will melt , and then blacken , whilst a vapour , or water , will come off ; and by continuing tbe process , you will get a considerable quantity of : water , while what is left behind is charcoal . The same is the case with woody fibre , it is resolvable into two parts—charcoal and water .
ihe common form m which carbon presents itself is that of wood charcoal . Ifc is light , porous , and black ; it is so light as to float on water , but plumbago and black lead , and the diamonds , are dense in their composition . Lamp black and soot are kinds of it . It possesses some properties to whicli I will draw your attention . 1 st , —If you light a piece , if it is in a pure state , ifc leaves no ashes behind . It disperses in the atmosphere , where itforms carbonic acid . Ifreduccd to powder , and mixed with impure water , or spread on tainted meat , it absorbs the taint , and makes both water and meat fresh and pure . It is useful in preserving game fresh that may be sent a distance . When in
the soil , it absorbs certain substances which are retained within its pores , and brought within reach of plants . 3 rd , —It will absorb immense quantities of air , or other gaseous vapours , and become much heavier . There are some kinds which will absorb greater quantities than . others ; if put into ammonia it will absorb four or 500 times its own bulk . These properties have an important effect on the growth of plants . Reduce charcoal to a fine powder , and damp it , and sprinkle it over seeds , it will cause tliem to spring rapidly . If drilled in with wheat , it will greatly increase the crop , as well as bring it forward more rapidly .
Water , the other component part of starch , woody fibre , & c ., when submitted to certain chemical operations , is separated into two gases—hydrogen and oxygen . Their properties 1 shall very briefly show you . If oil of vltvol ( sulphuric acid ) bemixed with water , and then poured upon zinc or iron filings , it immediately boils , and a gas generates , whicli collected over water will be found to be hydrogen . It is invisible , and cannot be distinguished from common air by _appearance or . smell ; but chemists in bringing out its properties have a simple apparatus , which may be called the chemist's sixth sense—viz ., alighted taper . When this is introduced into _livdroscn cas a slight
explosion takes place ( the result of a mixture of the hydrogen with the common atmospheric air ) , while the remaining hydrogen burns with a pale yellow flame , and the taper is extinguished . If a burner be placed in a vessel containing hydrogen gas , and light applied , the gas will burn for some time . It has an intense heat . If a hollow vessel be held over it the light will becomedim , and waterwill beTormed . This is the water appearing again from which the hydrogen , by burning , has been separated . Besides these pr < pe ties ifc possesses another : ifc is the _lightest body with which we are acquainted , and is used for _mflatinff balloons . '' ¦'_
Water also contains another substance , oxygen . It may be _produced by pouring water upon chloride of posiash , and heating it ; or , if red oxide bf mercury be heated alone . It cannot be distinguished from air , being destitute of colour , taste or smell ; but if a lighted taper be plunged into it , the flame is increased in size and brilliancy , and the taper burns away rapidly . Going into a chamber filled with hydrogen gas , we wouldiriimediatelydie ; but ififc were filled with oxygen gas , all the functions of our nature would be
Dung Mixens.—-Behind Tlic Cow-House In T...
stimulated and excited . The circulation _goea on with S _^ rapidity . We live , as it were , too fast . Fever supervenes , and dcathioUows : thus itisnecessary to animal life , and yet we cannot lire long m it in Tlm S _£ cnts of P _^ nts . _ttk _onBgrfgj _bm and water ; and as water itself is formed o hydiogen and oxygen , therefore plants are composed ot carbon and hydrogen , and oxygen ; _but-we have also another constituent in gluten or albumen , which is composed ofanother kind of air—vk , nitrogen . ' #
Ifwc put a small piece ot p _hosphorus ma saucer , kindle it , place a glass over it , and fill the saucer witli water , the light is gradually extinguished , nitrogen gas is formed . By applying a taper , it is seen in what respect it differs from tlie other gases . In nitrogen it docs not burn at all . This gives an idea of ' the resources a chemists has in these simple kinds of apparatus to carry on his investigations . A lighted taper serves him for a new sense , makes him acquainted with properties whose existence lie would not otherwise even have suspected .
You have now been informed that starch consists of carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and that gluten consists of nitrogen . These substances chemists call elementary or simple , because they cannot be separated into other substances . They , however , combine with one another . It will be desirable here to explain the difference in chemical language between combination and mixture . . Take quantities of charcoal and saltpetre , reduced to powder , and mix them together ; if you pour water upon them these substances aro separated . The same takes place with sand and sawdust . These are mixtures , nofc combinations . Substauces are said to combine when they ibrm a new one , differing entirely in * its properties from its originality . Carbon and charcoal , mixed with oxygen and set on fire , _disauoeav altogether ,
and forms a new kind of air called carbonic acid . Put a few pieces of chalk , marble , or limestone , into a vessel with a littlo water , then pour a a little spirit of salt ( muriatic acid ) over thorn . An effervescence will ensue , and an air will be produced whicli is invisible , but if a taper be put into it , ifc goes out . This air is so heavy that it may be poured from one vessel to another , or on a lighted candle , which it will instantly extinguish . This is the gas which given off by all _fcnncntci _^ liquors , such as champagne , soda water , itc . It is formed also by the respirations of animals . Every breath which is exhaled gives on t a portion of it in to the air ; and if we burn charcoal , wood , or coal , wo also produce carbonic acid . Wc thus find a small portion of it existing in thc atmosphere , ' as will be seen by thc table shewing thc composition of common air : —
COMPOSITION' OF THE A 1 _U . 15 efore Breathing J After Breathing . iNitrogeii 70 . 'IB 71 ) . 10 Oxygen 20 . 80 J 10 . 81 to 12 Carbonic Acid 0 . 01 | 4 , 00 to S 100 100 By this tabic it will be seen that the air , bcibve being inhaled , consists of nitrogen , oxygen , and carbonic acid . In 100 gallons of common air wc find 79 nitrogen , 20 oxygen , and an almost nnappreciablc quantity of carbonic aeid . A change always takes place when air is exhaled . The nitrogen remains the same , the oxygen is reduced /' rain 20 to 16 , whilst
wc have now -1 gallons of carbonic acid . All vegetable substances emit carbonic acid in large quantities , when iu course of decomposition . Nitrogen , which is formed by burning phosphorus , may be chemically combined with oxygen or hydrogen . When with oxygen , ifc forms nitric acid or aqua-fortis . From this process wc observe a curious principle in chemical combination—viz ., that the two harmless gases—nitrogen and hydrogen—form a corrosive and burning compound , such as aqua-fortis . This acid is formed naturally in soils , manure heaps , Ac ., and is of great importance to the fanner . It combines chemically with other substances , such as potash , soda , lime , itc . and is then called nitrate of potash , nitrate of soda , nitrate of lime & c .
Nitrogen , combined with hydrogen , forms ammonia . Tliis gas , 1 have no doubt , is familiar to every one of you , and , if any who do not already know it , would smell this bottle of hartshorn , they would not soon forget it .. Ammonia is absorbed in large quantities by porous substances and fluids , often live hundred times its bulk . Ammonia combines with acids . With carbonic acid ifc forms carbonate of _ammoniatliccoinnionsnicllingsallsot _' thcshops . This carbonate is of importance to farmers , and may be purchased at the gas works in thc shape of ammoniacal liquor . Plants consist of three parts—the roots , stems , branches and leaves . Like the branches in the air , the roots ramify in the soil , but instead oflcavcs tliey end in minute fibres . Cut through a tree you
will find an inner pith , then wood , and lastly , the bark , consisting of two parts—an outer , and an inner . The wood is porous , through which thcsapis . carried between the roots and the leaves . . These capillaries _, extend to the end of the twig , and spread over the leaf like veins . The sap proceeds . from the ; . roots through the wood , extends over ; . the leaves , and returns tlirough the inner bark . But where docs the sap come from ? From the soil . At the end of the root there arc a number of fibres , terminating in spongy ends , that draw in large quantities of water , and convey ifc into the wood . The leaves also perform an important function—iu order to understand which , we will refer to carbonic acid . The substance of a tree is composed of carbon and water , which carbon .
is one of the staple articles of food wliich a plant requires . Now , this is actually taken in by the plant itself . The leaves are covered all oyer with little mouths , especially below , by which they absorb carbon , decomposing the oxygen ifc contains .: The roots supply them plenfciftily with water , and the other staple articles of their food . You observe Jwiv small a . quantity of carbonic acid is contained in the atmosphere—only one gallon for twenty-iive hundred of air : and the reason why the aii- contains such a small quantity is , if it were impregnated with larger quantities , it would become hurtful to animal life . But , as the large quantities of this gas arc required to furnish carbon for the support of vegetable life : and
as the layer of the air which _sui'i'oiitids a , leaf , only contains a very limited portion of it , wc observe a beautiful plan pursued by nature , by which the air and leaves arc kept in continual motion by the breeze ; thus fresh supplies of carbonic acid arc continually brought within the reach of the plant . Before tho leaf is formed the young shoot performs tlie same function , so do the shoots of grain , grasses , & c . Water forms one of the chief articles of food to plants , but it serves another function—it serves as a carrier , by wliich food is supplied to the plants . The water wliich the roots drink in is scarcely ever pure , but is impregnated with other substances , in solution ; coming into contact with the roots , it enters and carries witn ifc the substances ifc lias dissolved in the
soil . It thus carries carbonie acid , potash , and various other organic substances from tne vegetable matter in the soil . There is a difference , of opinion amongst chemists as to whether the greater portion of the organic food of plants is derived from the soil or from the air , but I incline to the latter opinion . Tlie acids which contribute tothe _npurialimentof plants are liumic and ulmic acids . If we take a portion of vegetable soil , aud put it into a bottle of hartshorn , and after shaking , allow it to stand over for a day or two , wc will get a dark substance ; if to this wc add a quantity of muriatic acid ( spirit of salt ) , we will have Bumic acid , and if hartshorn be used , it will become ulmic acid . These . acids arc not
easily soluablc in water , but arc dissolvable in water containing ammonia , and exist in farm-yard liquids which run to waste . I have one observation to make as to the source from whence the nitrogen consumed by the plants is derived . Plants get their substance from the soil , but principally from ammonia produced during the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter . Ifc is also obtained partly from nitric acid . I beg the attention of agriculturists particularly to this point , because nitrogen is of importance in making the plantproduce a good crop . It is by affording plants a sufficient quantity of nitrogen , as well as other food in the goil , that wc must form the basis of a crop .
Mauomenax Pilgrims.—A Letter From Algier...
MAuoMEnAX Pilgrims . —A letter from Algiers contains the following * . — " I have just witnessed a cere- - mony very curious to European eyes—the return to » their families of the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca . . Their approach had been announced on the previous S day , and the whole Arab population went out to meet * t them , some , on _herscback , others on foot , with their ir wives and children . Some of them carried flags of jf various colours , and many of tliem kept firing off iff their guns , without which there can be no Me with th this singular people . I joined the cortege , and , after er proceeding for some time in tho midst of this pic- icturesquo group , I perceived the looked-for travellers _irs j approaching . The whole party , with whom I was , is ,
_coinmcncedsinging , or _rafclie ' _i' shouting , iu chorus— — ' O , pilgrims , in the House of God have you seen the he Prophet of the Most High V ' We have seen liim , m , and wc left him at Mecca ; lie there prays , fasts , per- crforms liis ablutions , and reads the holy books , ' was "vas the reply . ¦ ' After which tlic pavty hastened to salute utc them , to kiss their garments , and to offer them hos- iospitality . Happy was he who could entertain them , cm , in order to draw down upon his tent the blessing of g of thc All Powerful . Each of the pilgrims had brought ighfc from Mecca small chaplets , which they distributed uted to their relations and friends , and also phials filled died with the water of Birzomzem , a fountain in the holy holy house . This water is kenfc to sprinkle over the the
bodies of thc dead . The Arabs consider the journey rney to be attended with much danger , as the road is in- s in- festcd with robbers , and the expedition occupies fromtrom . i twelve to fifteen months , during which time they they _t have innumerable hardships to undergo , the endur-ldur--ancc of which they , however , hope will be the _meansieanss of their obtaining pardon for their sins . " In mEnECLisF . of life the most efficacious _occasionaVionali medicine , for giving tone and strength to the _sto-e _sto-imach , and acting at the same time as a gentle an ( _u an _( C healthful aperient , is " Frampton ' s Pill of XIealth _"^ _lth'U < . a family restorative which has conferred the most esost ess scntial benefits upon recourse to its healthapply to themselves spcare— "Though I look
Those Who Have Fortunately Haifhaui Rest...
those who have fortunately _haifhaui restoring aid '• ' _ejwfcffifthNn t « m titi the _weMiifflv- _^ _Wfc _^^ i _^ akiJ 7 _.-- T _''•' ' _•^^^ _» _*^ old , yet _Iangi _^ _pdfi _^^ _- hose who have fortunately _^ _haiy ' haw restoring aid e _»^ 1 _^ te _«| i t « _oa td ihe weh-ki _)^ vrf _Bi _^^^^^ _p _l _( lj Id , yet _Iangfe _^ id _|^| _gSM V' fe _^~' i _\^ _ra ; - _'Ssi < . _/ . > —~ v . !; _. e r ..,, _; i 7 r ..,,: ! f ¦ _*** SB ¦"'• _E _" . _;!? - >* _v- ' ¦> * _% ?¦ _' _* ¦ :- ¦¦ .. _u _$ & _$ _sm _, _% m
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Citation
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Aug. 9, 1845, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/ns4_09081845/page/7/
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