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Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
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« O 0 XXOB TTPOX THE QtlESITOy-ffiP EXPEBlEXCT—TRANSFER—COMPROMISE—POLITICAL TRAFFIC AKD COMPENSATION . tOB ALL CLASSES A ! TD ALL SECTS OF ALL XAXIONS , A > 1 > TO MY OWN DEAB FUST 1 AK JACKETS , BLISTERED HANDS , AXD UNgHOBX CHINS , THE PROP OF ALL . vr Deab Fbiksds , —I anxiously crave your best letter which Tery
^^ jion to a promises to be long , u to- s&bjeeta on "which it designs to tee&t are numerous , jojnpiex , yet so minutely dependant one upon the ^ g is to saifi them accessories to the facts which I - ^ n ' to charge against misrule ; * nd if my good f rieni , « j . H 21 , should see a necessity of " peaking" my story in rijg midiila , yon will keep both ends so hot in your afy u to mate them strong in the weld , and -aBp leteMswhole .
«• fiat * n ^ ^ a 5 t * enns > expediency and eoxnpeon . ^ ate & * ?**** < loestions to " * oich I thall direct your Litton ; the others , transfer , compromise , and poltU--1 traffic , are bat filling staff , and shall be ased merely aif scfc . Exp ediency , " y ° i » Te been often told , and of jjjgk dear-bou ght experience hat convinced you , is & tjrss ? s pte- "W " aUcer . *» & *» dictionary , gives us ^^ n different meanings far the w ord : fitness , pro-- g — jTiitableness to U end , expedition , sdventare , wis / dispitcii . ^ » " ^ PP * ^ divide those
meanjsa into tyrants , wd "their shareiB generally thebiggeat wjf re nay » fely concede to them the four latter solnfc ^ ii : "expedition , " " adTentore , " "haste , " "dispatch , " ^ ia to the vocabulary of just rulers , -we should say , » g three farmer propeily beleng . In fact , one would icppae that , according t » the English language , fitness , tropDstJ" . «> d suitableness to an end , wer « the trne ^ r amaa of the word , while the four latter , Tarying , .. fcfc orio , " is meaning from the former , were added in — jppgEdix , ebcs the Reform BUI , as growing « ut of to BjtBadB of the term by Reformers .
Ijiethase four words , expedition , adTentore , haste , ( jjJjaaj 1 ) jad I uk you , could the mind of all-ingenious usn bsn ! & «!><» & motto more typical of Whig-reformed polity ¦ Ha ' ^^ proved themselves mere advensnera , rdying upon transfer , compromise , poligal Sift : sad compensation , for the success of their gjjjjgfciiBgs- ' ^ " ^ no «* pedition , haste , and disifa m » 2 fr'ng * conducing to the adventure , marked Sei eTETyaet ? while , in all matters connected with as ^ e Sfe of the state , a creeping , cringing , moping , & £ ] % , groping policy , has marked their every step , as f jpjr eiaBsiTe and fearful of meeting an apparition of ijgice in some part of their piratical course . Have fssas , propriety , at suitableness to an end , once enieed isio their councils , or governed' their actions ?
So , sot onee . Hit is expedient to relieve the estates of the rich hiss * mortgage held in trust for the whole people , exjeSaoB , haste , and dispatch , the three Drrfl-kings gttrentare and cnjnst power , step in ; necessity tjOj , sad expediency unceremoniously ays , " be it K . " If t dsmoreus mob of an exclusive class complain of ljsiMiplenpoB the face of custom , necessity says , if a « promptly removed , it may tarn to a cancer , and ecpaSeKy foriiwiih removes the pimple .
Bsa , if the whole people , fitly , properly , and with a vsrio a suitable end , complain of chronic disease and ymwitg disorder , expediency requires twenty-five j ! S 31 £ least to perfectly understand the nature of the attfict'a complaint , and as many more to decide npon ste rsaedy—wijness the hand-looai weaver ' s comjfcisL If the landlords require a fictitious value to be put upon tea esU ^ s , suitable to the end , that they may be expeditioasl ; made good security for the fnai-lords , prntaee ssyi it is just , sad expediency cries , expedition , hute , dispatch , and , as if by magic , the thing is
dens . So with lbs paTafmn . If an article is to be added to Jbe state creed , or if one is to be lopped off ; if faith iiould require a reform , equivalent to all secvlax reforms , so that the state sword and the church sword aboald in notfcfng dash ; or it new security ehonld be required for tfca puipuae of tmneforrng the paymesi of tidies froa . s& enlighieoed to an ignoani portian of the eosummity , expedition , haste , and Sspsieh are always at the service of the adventurers ; mi bd Whig iron ever cools for want of sufficient heat a tie political furnace .
A > far u expediency goes , then , I claim , for the ¦¦ has people , a chance of fitly , properly , and suitably asstead of expeditiously , hastily , and with dispatch ,-aspiring the Reform Bill in the spirit in which the jecpJs risked their live * for ita accomplishment—that ii , that it shall make taxation and represeatadon co-¦ tesave . If this is treason , I am a traitor and glory is the Tome . Hence , we cnt even expediency , the jm ? oi tyrants , from under them , and claim its just cd rightful application to the suitableness of the ends tf justice .
let ia now consider Transfer . The Reform Bill pro Eisfel to be the annihilation of Torykm ; not for Whig k « £ ^ b at for national improvement The Whigs KS , Jhi Tories rule contrary to the m ^ T ^ f of the Con-Bsafe , in violstion of compact , and in opposition to P&i « wDI . They -wage destructive , perpetual , and speaiTe war * , for the purpose of keeping up their wapore , and thereby are compelled to ]« vy grinding » a rpoa die subject . We want rf 5 « rm to preserre ? ° * i £ sd , tlsereby , as -vrar is the most expensive item a zatiosal txpenditure , to lighten the public burden , Bd Eite retrenchment in such department as have — "Sio been kept up as mere auxiliaries of political 1 ** 9 , without being at all beaetcial to the country . Es Mfonn demagogues over and over again said , " we rs 20 : transfer , we require equal justice for alL "
let Er point out a f » w delusions practised by two of ffiaost prominent reform demagogues . Russell saia " * ^ object of the Reform Bill was , to make repre-*^ teia aad taxation co- « xt € nsiTo—can words be more f * 2 % asd do we , even now , in our strength , ask for 25 TS . ' iaEl = T , in s speeek coHrmenting upon the little " ^ the Reform Bill -sra-5 said te hold on : for Ireland , ^ *^ t folloTFing jrords : — " Wehave abolished tithes ^ yos , szi for ever ; cali you that nothing ? " He fur-* aa ^^ ' -hat . anothtr principle of the Reform BUI , ¦** ¦ " to place all the institutions of the country under pspfcr vl gUaEt controL "
? T > ^ onr most hsated imagination , we have asked ¦ x ¦ & more . ^ let me ^^ if it u right that the ^» wijejj cjnie ^ ^ measT 1 j . should be sat : s £ ed \ ritb •* ' His not the Reform Bill , then , notwithstanding aeii ] of transfer , b&sa the mere transfer of power ^ ° 0 £ gorged faction , who governed by measure . TE 5 e w hich , though galling , the nation began to « a settled wea » , to another faction , so destitute fr&ic ecsSfience— so wanting in faith , without rule as ** Brs , as to be emrnpeiled to manufacture new ***• for new adherents , in order to furnish a sabstii *** their trint of moral cotirage and common ^** 7 ' Have yon fewer placemen , fewer pensioner * , JT * ^ ecurists , or fewer Commissioners ? If the = « Mogul - 3 Joe aches , is not the chacce of a royal Z ***^ of condolence a Grod-send to eur retrenching
w aave had more commissions vrithin five jean , ^^ fifty years before the Reform Bill ; and all to ^* f e howmanj- may be most profitably applied for the y ®** 1 " ^ hig power , and f « r the preservation of a ^ Pt A-dministrat ion . j * * ° » y of Tory Government was a general com-™** Has your secret service fund been diminished * ° * the emaid rule of the open and undisguised Whigs , ;*> wid ^ to submit all and everything to vigilant ** « coatroul ? 9 * 7 ma War * fewer , or more distant from the hearth , ^« red upon better pretensions ? ^ oTZ ***** * meroxa 0 T mt > re eqoaBj laid Wlw ? TeBl Partie * > according to their ability to
> J Joo have had the two mo « t nnjurt wars ever " ^ witina the memory of man proclaimed since last j r ** * Parliament ; _ * 4 W *?* haSt *• Chiae 8 e ' ^ e mo « t peace-loving ^ J ^** evilised nation in all the arts of modern 2 * " ° ^ b tie world . Yob have to pay for Angloj ^^ KBBgglerB 5 license to enervate , intoxicate , and ^ aom Rlb '' eets rf a mo ^ aarch , careful of the health , ^^^^ « ad the condition of his * nb ; ecta ; and this a ^ jj / 8 caU . **** trade , and your capitalists look on ^ Aotiriilf 51 * 7 m 9 SJ *" tbe experiment , which ^^^ Pata wiu intsoduce yo « r produce into the 101 empire .
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The - ^ . against Mehemet AH was unjust , dishonourable , unchristian , and disgracefuL Be won his crown by th $ sweat ot his brow and the exercise of his talent , and tK > re ft tor the good of hia ' people . He was more , much more , tolerant to infidels , that is , to those Christians , whom other Christians call heretics , than out state church isio a community professing thirty-eight and nineteen-twentieths of their thirty-nine articles of faith . He would not incarcerate ft cobbler twenty-two months for non-payment of 3 s . 6 d . mvi ^ vt kn ivi iltfwyaj lingim Ui % fo , VU *
Thus we find that , eowaxd-like , the first and the last act of Whiggery are in perfect keeping Their first experiment . was to wage domestic war against the poor out-of-the-way Dorchester Labosna ; their last has been to insure the co-operation of three other powerful states ( the one England ' s deadly foe and jealous rival ) to make war upon almost the only constitutional monarch opos earth , in order that a tottering Government rosy limp , and hop , and hobble for another bit , npon the prop which their deadly patronge confers npon
them , while you will find that—no matter what the result , whether , a » you will be told , glorious , and as adding brilliancy to our arms—er whether your fathers , husbands , brothers , and friends retcrn with wooden legs , or their lifeless bodies shall be mntilated under the walls of war , —yon will pay the -whole reckoning , not only for the immediate brttak , bnt lor the distinction and emolument which must be permanenUy conferred upon the victors , that is , upon the officers , not upon the soJdiers .
Thus has the Reform Bill transferred the treasury ( and if I spoke for ever , that is what all contend for . ) from hands who were well watched , ani stoutly opposed , to hands who are lured on to their own undoing , petted into extravagance , and aided into expence , in order that their recklessness may first disgust the nation , and hereafter furnish a good precedent for the old oppressors , when their turn comes , and which is now , thank God , fast approaching—I say thank God—for the restoration of the Tories to a short-lived ascendancy , will be the watch-word for the establishment of Democratic right
The value , of the transfer to yon has been an amalgamation of the whole squad into a fraternity of unopposed plunderers . Where , now , is her Majesty's opposition ? , When , now , do you hear of an objection , in order to reduce public expenditure ? Never ; and as we learn from the ruined state of the exchequer , a fresh appeal must be made , for give , give , give , and not a Boul will Bay sat . Then will give , but who will pay ? that's the question . Have not the Cooperations been a ] complete transfer , with an increase of local taxation , of local tyrants , of election profligacy , and party animosity ? Tes ; bnt wien I come to treat of compensation , I shall haveanother word upon these said corporations .
But , after all , what was the greatest of all transfers , that in . which all parties most unceremoniously joineda transfer -whose permanency depends , not like some upon which . I have briefly treated , on the contingency of Whig tenure of omce ? No ; it is » good custom transformed into a bad , oppressive law . I mean the transfer of the parish , unwilling idler , from the tender care and guardianship of the old English gentleman , to whom he was known , with whom he had laboured , and upon whose estate he drew his first breath , partaker or his childish pranks , of his boyish freaks , his manly sports , his hospitable fare , and his judicial protection—the transfer ef Ms natural client to the iron sway , the economising grasp , the licentious controul of the well-paid economist of the rich man's trust This was " the unkindest cut of alL "
But , beside * its physical effects , mark its moral tendency . Few pevple have as yet weighed this hellish measure in- all its bearings . They have not , poor souls , had time to turn from the physical enormity to a consideration of the moral consequence . The Star , three yean ago , told yon that henceforth that measure would be the basis of every law of magnitude formed under the present system , while , even worse , it has had the desired effect , breaking up local
society , of Betting master against man , party against party , family against family , and interest against interest It has' polluted the stre&ma of that neverceasing current—local justice . And herein consists its greatest hideoasnes * , its potency for evil , and power of mischief ^ and from this one of its feature * we may trace every imprisoned Chartist to his weary abode , every local injustice to iu source , and every act of tyranny to its rise , and , I trust , to its fail . Observe , then , my friends , that the greatest transfer of which history makes mention , is that transfer of magisterial appointments , consequent upon the New Poer Law , and the necessity of swamping the little of vigilant popular controul which the Bill left , by an inundation of ignorant , purse-proud , upstart , self-sufficient Justice Shallows . A set of nincompoops , who know as much about law as the horse that carries
them-I > UCLU * ] Behold , then , the jurisdiction given to these ! worthies , with reference , in the first instance , to the enforcement of the measure , which , in direct violation 1 of the original intent , has left them master of a . 11 the avenues of justice , in their capacity of tx-ofkio gendarmes , thus swamping the bench with starvation , ' . And wnat followed ? Why , such beastly decisions as would disgrace a bench of fools ; and in nearly all cases I where appeals have been made against those decisions ,
i reprimand has followed ; but the expence of appeal sgaiw : QDJust magistrates , is au effectual bar to justice , i be tlits poor man ' s claim never so good . Hence we find ' a thousand pounds bail for working men , and eighty : and sixty for high offences committed by a higher 1 order of . beings . And , observe , this very holding to 1 bail is strong presumptive evidence against a working i man , thus stauipcd vritii the wratb . and censure of one , set of masters , for the guidance ot another set , who 1 are to sit in judgment , as jurors , upon tiieir oiths .
I -would cot give-you a turnip , nay , not a rotten one , for the oaths of a middle class jury , when empanntUed to try s working class slave . These men , observe , is magistrates , have the power of introducing the Rural Police , of ordering out and paying the special constablts and Boidiers , vrith your money , to shoot you , and of compelling the Government to open the purse-strings of the secret service fund , to famish their spies -vrith the ¦ wages of seduction , treachery , and perjury .
This , thea , whether considered morally or physically , is lbs greatest , as it is the most destructive , transfer of all . A dish may . annihilate the power of a faction , but the law remains written ; and now , before I take leave of this question , and as some sagacious booby bas given birth to the apothegm , that " the great magic in politics is to be right , " than which , a more ignorant sentence could not be written ; let me council you to do r ight . Indeed , you' have always beea right , and you have as yet found but little magic in your r&ctitude . The great magic iu politics is to have the might , and " the only true title to power is that which right and might conspire to uphold . "
You know that I have no faith in petitions , for any practical benefit which they are likely te produce . Yuu have , however , wisely petitioned for the restoration of TiiiSi , Williams , and Jones , and upon other subjects , therefore yon still , in some instances , approve of the farce- Let me , then ,- advise yon to get up petitions in every locality , against the re-enactment of the measure it will have died a natural death this Session . Do not go to any expence . The plan which I propose is this : —A sheet of long foolscap paper will contain 250
names , leaving rooa for a short petition at the bead ; each page will admit ot tvo columns of signatures , and let millions of those be sent to Mr . Fielden . Every 250 will cost only « ne penny , the price of the cover . Let the class leaders take them in their pockets ; let them be placed in barbers' shops , news-agents' shops , and in the shops and houses of all who are opposed to the re-enactment of the law . Let your petition run thus : — To the Common * of the United KiPodom , in Parliajnent
assembled . The humble Petition of the industrious classes of Barnsley and its vicinity , 8 HBWE 7 H , That yoar petitioners look upon the New Poor Law Amendment Act at a robbery of the poor , by the allocation of their trust property , to purposes different from those for which-it was originally granted and held . That they consider it as a violation of the laws of God , and destructive of the very best principles upon which the British Constitution has been based . That they will give to it , in all its stages , every constitutional opposition which remains in their power ; and that they never will vote for , or BUpport , any candidate who lends binrafr to the re-enactment of the
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measure ; bat , an tte ' oontraiy ,-will . oppo 9 e > ini to the utmost of their power . - > ' ' That it is a robbery of the poor for the benefit of the r ich , which never can be upheld except by an expensive brute force , and is , above all other measures , calculated to widen that breach which fobmer Parliaments , aided by a griping trading class , have widened , between the upper sad lower classes of society . That in order to render null and Toid some of the clauses in the BUI , tx-ojjfkio Guardians have been appointed , who , in their magisterial capacity , have been oppressive , ignorant , sad tyrannical , and have thereby brought the laws of England , administered by then , into contempt and disgust
For these , and numerous other reasons , your petitioners pray that your Honourable House will order the original Bill to be burnt by the hands of the common hangman , and abstain from any further legislation upon the measure , leaving the old law of the 43 rd of Elimbeth in full force , until the people , in their united wisdom , shall make such alterations and Improvements in all laws for the support , comfort , and proper maintainance of the poor , as shall seem fit , when they are thoroughly represented in their House , which they never yet have been . And your petitioners , M in duty bound , Will ever pray .
Now , let this be done without soy man devoting more time to the question than the mere signature of the petition . There need be no meetings ; there have already been an abundance , and public opinion has been fully expressed . This will not take so hour from the Charter agitation ,- but let as test the House in its death throes , because , believame , that many knaves , who will soon be thrown back upon the people , if not thus tested , will say , " Oh ! I never knew your mind . Youdid * nt petition . "
Let us see if the minority of seventeen has increased anything in three years , and this , above all other means , will put to flight the incomparable felly of those who ask the unrepresented , why they don't use their power for practical purposes . It will give us the magic of being right , while it will show the little value of the magic without the might A petition should be sent to every Town Council in England , and the names , with the political cognomen of those who sign it , shall be published , and , lest the petition for you should be too
strong for them , mix the medicine to the palate of the patient , make it all honey , and simply pray that the Bill shallnot be re-enacted . Dont put one hard word in their petitions . You will get one henest Councillor in every corporate town to undertake the charge of it , and , when signed , get it back and transmit it yourselves . By these means , in three days , Saturday , Sunday , and Monday , you shonld be able to have from two to three millions of signatures . Here , then , is right with a vengeance , but its magic consists in the sabstance of which it is merely the shadow , —the might
Let not the sophistry of those who proclaim themselves Chartists , and something more , which means fool , and something less , deter yon from this act of expediency , suitable to a just and proper end . By the treatment which your petitions will certainly receive , I want to test a principle . I want to prove to you , and to put you in a position to prove to practical spouters , that devoting your energies to what Is called practical questions , is all moonshine ; and by this means we shall do more to rivet attention to the question of questions , the mental enfranchisement , than by all other appliances within our reach .
I find that having already exhausted so much of my space upon the questions of minor importance , that I shall be myself compelled to cut mj story short in the middle . Now , ponder over what I have said , and always bear in mind that , under the present system , you have not the power , although you pay all the taxes , to effect , by your petitions , any , the slipbtes change in state affairs ; nay , not even to the discharge of a palace menial , to the shortening of a royal horse ' s tail , or to the disbanding of a troop or company of soldiers . I am , my friends , Your true and faithful friend , feargcs O'Connor .
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- ^— , » TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN . Madam , —We will now , if you please , resume onr illustrations as to the classes into which criminals are divided , and the equal justice dealt « ut to each . And here I must beg your ' attention to the third precept of the moral law . If a poor ignorant fellow swear a profane oath , ( and I admit the practice is both wicked and disgraceful , ) he may be fined by any justice of the peace , before whom the oSnace is proved ; and if he swear falsely , he is > and very properly , too ) liable to an indictment for perjury . The law denounces these
acts m crimes , which call for condign punishment ; but 1 pray your Majesty to note well , that there are no crimes in the great , noble , and * ven clerical portion of the community . Those gentry may insult the heavens with their profanity , and in 999 cases out of 1 , 000 they are never called to an account at all ; or , if perchance , as in the case of a magistrate the other day , somebody is honest enough to call for the infliction of the penalty npon the respectable , as well as upon the poor , delinquent , the punishment , in the latter case , is at the best but nominal , for the five shillings may be a serious fine to a poor mechanie , or agricultural labourer , whilst it is absolutely nothing to a rich " respectable . "
Again , while perjury is considered to be most horrible in a case of petty theft , the wholesale perjury , which is daily committed by the elite of the land , is considered as utterly beneath the notice or the controul of the law . I ana withheld by the terrors of the law of libel from being more explicit ; but this I will say—Look at the oaths constantly taken by Members of Parliament , by Magistrates , by public officers , by tradesmen , and parties engaged in commerce , and by all orders of tb « clergy , and then say , if those solemn appeals to the
Deity are cot constantly violated in the most shameless and unbluibAng manner . Has not " O ! it is only a Custom House oath ' . " passed into a proverb ? And what are we to think of the conscientiousness of the clergy in regard to oaths , when we see church livings constantly advertised for sale in the pubiic prints , in the Jeetfl of the solemn oalh against simony , inscribed in the canons , and which , every person having cure of souls must take before induction to his benefice ? Yet all this frightful immorality is no crime , for the authors of it are rtsj / eclahle .
We find the same broad distinction drawn in reference to the fourth conimnnilinent . If a poat fellow be caught trying to gain something fer his half-starved family lor supplying the destitute in his neighbourhood whs did not receive tlieir scanty earnings till too late for the market on the Saturday night ) bj Sunday trading , he is liable to be pounced upon by some pious advocate of Sabbath sanctity , and placed within the fangs of the law as a most flagrant transgressor ; but no wonder , for bis crime must be enormous , being snp « rinduced in some way or other by the still mere atrocious crime of poverty . To sell a loaf to honest
poverty , unless the salesman be a baker , duly authorised to break the Sabbath by act of Parliament , is gross immorality , calling for pains and penalties in . this world , and hell fire in the next ; but the parties of pleasure , the drives in the park and the Sunday evening parties , for gaming and abominations of every kind , of the nobility and gentry , are in perfect accordance with the nature of the day of rest ; and the saints of ihe Agnew school , who are horrified at the bare idea of » pleasant tea meeting , or a country ride , by the working classes on a Snnday , never think that a Sabbath bill is called for to regulate the saloons of my Lord Duke , or to place under efficient controul the hells in St James ' s-street
We find that , in accordance with the anpposed requirements of God ' s precepts , the man who imbues his hands in the blood of his fellow , is worthy of the punishment « f death , for he is a murderer whom a righteous vengeance suffers not to lire ; but when a Queen and Government resolve to commit murders by the thousand , —when , because a people refuse to let merchants poison them , it is resolved that hired miscreants shall be sent to kill them , in the most
approved fashion of improved military butchery , then it is no crime at all , bnt on the contrary , is most glorious and honourable ; and those who have most distinguished themselves in the work of blood , are set up as idols , and the wreatb of what is call # d honour , with other things more substantial , must be bestowed upon them . A decline from the paths of virtue is , in the female in humble life , deemed worthy of the severest privations , and must be branded with infamy , m tie
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New JPooiljBiW a $ or < is ; anjpje ' Evidence -. bat leji the same declension be found in the privileged ranks , and behold , the ching * < . Every palliative that canning can devise is brought ; to cover , or to excuse the deed ; the fair frail one Is t » be soothed with the tenderest care , while the foundling , hospital , opens its dowra to receive the proofs of her shame , or some connection , useful to the minister of the day , secures for It a comfortable provision . out of thei labour of those ' ; who cannot find bread fox their virtuous , wives and legitimate offspring . Once more , the thief who steals to satisfy his hanger , or to provide ft morsel for those who are to him far more precious than h is own life , Is dbomed to stand at his coantry ' s bar ; '¦ —( I . . > eg pardon , Madam , at what should to his country's bar , ) and is , as on execrable
rascal , sent to expiate his crime on the tread-wheel , or in the dreary exile of a penal settlement . But the respectable tobber ~ he who by bU trading and commercial speculations goes beyond his own means , and by hie failure involves numerous families in ruin , escapes without punishment , and can come forth to the world as an nonourable man . A still higher class of thieves , or rather swindlers , are they who receive large amounts of money out of the public purse , for work which they hove never done nor intended to do . Such are pnfeHc officers , wbo ire of no use ; such are those , who , because they happen to be the husbands , wives , children , or other relatives of kings , claim a right of taking extravagant salaries on the score ot their royal blood ; and such are all those who hold church preferment without cure , or who holding livings with cure , devolve the sacred duties they have sworn to perform upon othera , taking almost the -whole fleece to themselves . All these parties are guilty of crimes of the deepest dye ; but thea such men must not be styled " criminals , " they must not he held amenable to the law , because they are royal , NOBLE , CLERICAL , Or , at least , RESPECTABLE . Thus , Madam , have I laid before yon some portion of the evidence which goes to prove that , we have , as the result of our imperfect system of education , two classes of crimes ; the one being those of the poor which are deemed to deserve punishment ; the other and most flagrant , are not called crimes , but , at the
utmost , venal errors , and very frequently , by the names of glory , honour , valour , public virtue ; and a hundred other pretty epithets used to conceal the deformity of their real character , and to which , of course , no punishment or disgrace is legally attached at all . Can it , then , be any cause of wonder that , with education so imperfect , those who claim to be the best informed , seem , in many cases , to be incapable of distinguishing right from -wrong , and under which the bulk of the people shonld be s » Ignorant of their own rights , duties , and capabilities , as to tamely tolerate a system which is grinding them to the earth , crime should be found to exist to a portentous and alarming extent ?
It is , in fact , utterly impossible that crime should cease to exist , or even be , to any considerable extent , diminished , until it it plainly demonstrated that offences are such in themselves , and not merely because they are perpetrated by a certain class of individuals ; but mmst be recognised as such even though not clothed in rags , and vice must not be allowed to hide its deformity under the garb of respectability . We are learning a lesson which it would have been happy for the world if mankind had learnt long ago ,
that is , to call things by their right names , and to test tkeir merit or demerit , not by the appearance they assume , but by the truth or falsehood of the principle they involva So far as the public are concerned , the more " respectable" the criminal , the more heinous is the offence , and in public equity the more severe should be the punishment I am , Madam , Your Majesty ' s faithful and obedient subject and servant , London , January 27 th , 1811 . NUMA .
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* , ANALYSIS OF THE HAND-LOOM WEAVERS' REPORT . LETTER XI . ' To sncli a state have we been brought by our system of political economy , that it is difficult to see a clear way out of our embarrassments . If we were to prohibit entirely the exportation of machinery , and the emigration ef artisans , I fear we are so far sold to foreigners , and our commercial relations so miserably dependent upon their breath , that they would still suck eur vitals and laugh at us . Whilst we have a court filled with foreigners , an aristocracy patronizing them , a government depending upon foreign loan mongers , a race of imbecile merchants and manufacturerB courting them , and a whole nation apeing their follies and vices , how can we expect to be otherwise than pusillanimous dupes ?
Wehave a Tillanous system of Patent Laws , encouraging improvements and innovations , and an office where drawings and specifications are deposited , describing such inventions and improvements most minutely . Foreigners , by this means , can steal the brains of Englishmen as quietly as possible , copy drawings an l specifications , carry them over to the Continent , and manufacture machinery as perfect as our own . We have also numbers of scientific works , full of plates , describing every invention , and a host of foolish scribes and talkers boasting of our genius , and holding up to the admiration of foreigners our most profitable inventions . Poor fools ! The Ursa Major of the Manchester Guardian foolishly imagines
that if Parliament does not allow free trade in machinery " a most extensive and lucrative brunch of tnuie ( machine making ) will be monopolised by foreigners . " We cannot prevent foreigners becoming active rivals , we ought never to huve been exporting machinery or tools , until we bail radically reformed the representation of the people , which , had it been done fifty yearn ago , -would have prevented England from falling into her present degraded and humbled position , and her people from seeking a fair market for their labour in other countries , in consequence * f being denied one in their own . Foreigners laugh at us . . Dr . Howring , in his Report on the Prussian Commercial Uuion , page 55 , says : —
"I have often heard the observation in Germany , You . may try I * stop the exportation of your machines , but how can you stop the exportation of the ht .-tds and hands Uiat make them ?" The Doctor ' ** favourite emigration scheme is a capital plan to get the " heads and bands ; " the political ecouornists have been weighed in the balance , and the effect of their surplus . population iloctnne £ is recorded in the above qnotation . Yes , yes , we rid ourselves of the " surplus population , " ami the Germans get "headsand hand * " to make their machinery , and very ( shortly we Bhall have more li heads and hands , " tospare . A -surplus population of weavers , dyers , spinners , printers , &c . We are already in a declining stale . Compare oua condition with the Doctor ' s description of Germany .
" In some respects Germany may boast of superiority to Great Britain in htr means for manufactures . The arts of deiign , flud their application to various fabrics , are better umlerstuod . Aletate aro more successfully wrought aad Worked ; cbeinicul knowK ' dgo , in its various branches is farther advanced than with us . Steam engines are fumed on all sides , and mechanical improvements have made radiil strides , and have served to open a wide field for the characteristic deveUpeuient of German intelligence . Out impolicy has contributed much to make Germany our most formidable rival . Our extravagant system of
Government , together with our debt , requires a heavy amount of taxation , to be levitd upon almost all Coteign produce ; the Germans , by the law of ift-talliation , impose heuvy duties upon our manufactures ; at the same time they foster and encourage their own manufacturers ; and from the influence they possess iu the English Court , they experiencu no difticuity in procuring au order in Council for the exportation of any particular piece of machinery , so we have been swindled out of our political rights , eat of the profit of our labour , and now , we are being swindled out of our trade altogether , without any apparent resources to fall back upon , save the Poor Law Bastiles .
In Saxony , one of the German Union , with an area of 5 , 748 square miles , and a population of 1 , 505 , 608 ; there were , in the year 1836 , 229 factories , ( 116 woollen 113 cotton , ) 38 bleaching establishments , 3 < i dying establishments , 1 , 559 manufacturing establishments , 278 hosiery establishments , 125 ribbon establishments , 45 printing establishments , 3 « 2 lace , blonde , < fcc establishments , 25 chemical works , 48 iron works , 18 » naohine-maki » g establishments , with many others , making 2 , 899 in all . Much attention has been paid of late to the manufactures of machinery in Saxony , " the Sachuschen MascbinenbauCompagnie , ( Saxon Machine-making Company ) with a- capital of one million of dollars , is said to be in a flourishing state . Other similar establishments have been formed ; machines and models hare been imported , both from England and other countries , and English artisans have been engaged to give instructions to the Germans , arid to undertake the superintendence of their werks . "— ( See page 67 , Bowring ' s report" )
There needs no logical tact to convince the most ignorant dullard that the trade of England is declining in Germany . Now , the Germans have got the heads , the hands , the machines , the models , and the instructors , they make their own machines ^ and manufacture their own goods . The report upon Leipalg fair states , " British printed calicoes have been exceedingly reduced by native competition , " and " the low German cotton manufacturers have driven those of England out of the market" More improved machinery will very shortly drive our finer cotton manufactures out of Germany . All this comes of the accursed system •/ Eng-
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lish Government coupled with free trade humbug . Free trade , forsooth , with ' fifty million of taxation on our shoulders . ' Our trade to Germany is doomed to perdition . Our export trade to that country in 1800 , aiBoahted to £ 9 , 485 , 366 and now , after forty years of inventions and trading speculations , We do not export one half of that amount So much for Germany . In Belgium , we are n » leu opposed by native enterprise ; there is a joint stock machine maker's company , called , "The Societe du Phoenix , " at Ghent , employing about 750 men ( sixty of whom are English ) in the manufacture of cotton and flax machinery ; they not only make for themselves , but for exportation , as the following extract from a London paper Will shew-.
—"Alarge ship , freighted with machinery , recently sailed from Ghent for Vera Cruz , on account of a Mexican merchant . This is said to be the second stmUar cargo sent to the same party within the last three months . The whole of the machinery was manufactured in Belgium . " In Hamburgh , aays the report , "there is a very large establishment belonging to ' essrs . Ghrisman and Bussee ; they have expended . ore £ 30 , 000 in the erection of the buildings , and the purchase of English tools , also patterns of the most approved English machinery . " Here is another blow at the * ' great workshop of the world . " Now , let us examine our own position 1 Our weavers complain that the exportation of machinery is injnrioaj to tiieir trade . I fear that complaining is rueleia , for I find the following passage in the Nottingham Journml : —
" Hosiery and Lack Trapes . —A practice has commenced , within these few weeks , which , if not prevented , in time , will tend to depopulate the midland counties ; namely , ah extensive exportation of Engliihbuiit ttockingframea to Belgium and Holland , and some few to France . ? • A considerable number have been shipped from Liverpool to the United States , which has been a sort of free port for such traffic , as the custom-house officers take little notice of such shipments . No less than twenty-seven plain frames
were exported at one shipment about a month since [ June last } to Antwerp , whether by Treasury license or otherwise , remains to be seen . Foreign agents are extensively engaged in purchasing more frames , and engaging hands to work them . A aert of half fever prevails among the unemployed to get situations abroad ; and so numerous are the applications , that only the best workmen are selected . In addition to which , considerable numbers of frame smiths have been seduced to leave this vicinity for Antwerp , Ostend , Atb , and Calais . "
After reading snob a paragraph , it appears almast useless to cry out ; our mechanics sell their ingenuity and their labour to foreigners , wbo openly seduce them from their father-land to minister to their designs against their country ; the Government officers , too , wink at this exportation of machines , in consequence , no doubt , of the Treasury license . la a fit of desperation , our political economists cry out , let us have a free trade in machinery , otherwise our machine makers will lose the monopoly or machine-making for all the world ! Free traders talking of monopoly ? This is really funny ! Now , the great questieu resolves itself into these details : —Can we prevent the exportation of machinery ? I say , emphatically , no ! Keason ; because We have gone too far in encouraging our political
and commercial enemies . Ought we to prohibit the exportation as far as possible ? I Bay , yes ! Keason ; because , by radically reforming the representative system , we might improve our country so as to turn the use of machinery into a more profitable channel , to go to the good of the commonwealth ; besides , those operatives , who depend uptn machine-making in England , are numerically small compared with those who depend on manufacturing by machinery ; consequently , therefore , the interests of the many ought not to be sacrificed to thoseof the few ; and if wede not oppose the exportation of machinery , we should tacitly allow a band of speculators and dissatisfied manufacturers to enrich themselves at the expense of the downfall ot the staple manufactures of England , and the consequent ruin of the people .
No doubt , a bill will be brongbt into Parliament by Mark Phillips , to allow free exportation of machinery ; it will be supported by all the political philosophers of the free-trade school ; of course , the people have no say in the matter , but it will not pass ; nevertheless , the people must keep a look out for the debates , and they will see the class of fellows who would sell the trade of England to foreigners ; it will also furnish more proofs of the necessity of a Radical Reform of tkat House which -wields the destinies of the people in so reckless a manner .
I now conclude these series of ten letters upon the hand-loom weavers' case ; nine of them were written in Lancaster and Kirkdale gaols ; and I must say , in justice to the Governors" of those gaols , that they are in no wise blameable , though it was contrary to the prison rules to write for the press ; for I found means to get them out without inculpating the Governors , whose duties would have prompted them to prohibit their transmission , had they pasaed into their hands . I do not know what were the facilities f « r prisoners in other gaols ; but Lancaster and Kirkdale are very liberal towards political prisoners .
Men of Colne , so far have I discharged my duty to your unfortunate class . I shall now publish the whole of the letters in a cheap form , and take care that copies are forwarded to every Member of Parliament , that they do not plead ignorance of your condition . I canot do otherwise than expretB my thanks to the Editor of the Northern Star , for opening his columns to my Analysis , whereby , at least , thirty thousand copies of each letter have been ci > culated weekly in the remotest parts of these kingdoms ; yes , even to the desk of Fox Maule , the whipper-in of th « Government libellers and seditionists . R . J . Richardson . February 8 th , 1841 .
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THE EFFECTS OF CLASS-LEGISLATION " , AS SEEN IN THE STREETS AND HOUSES OF THE WORKING CLASSES . [ Concluded from our tast . J Let us now take a still closer view of the subject , ami ponder upon the state of things ; let us also awake up to a sense of our real position , and , with our eyes open , commence an immediate struggle to escape . I have already shewn bow unfairly the upper classes apply the funds contributed , by all , for the equal use of all . And now let us see how the working classes , with all thuir "ignorance" and " imbecility , " act towards their richer brethren ; and if I do not prove that , in this at least , they fulfil more than the golden rule requires , namely , " to do as they would be done unto , " 1 shall be greatly mistaken . What a beautiful steeple-house they are just finishing , at the bottom of Kirksate , for the upper and middle classes :
what capital houses they rear on every handthey are complete in every particular—not an outhouse is wanting—a plentiful supply of water—not one without a privy , ash-holes , extra water closets , grates , and sumpholes—good . spouting—top and common sewerage , wilh other means to take off all bad smells and prevent nuisance—well-flagged causeways , and beautifully-paved streets—sweet plots of garden ground , and here and there is exhibited a miniature country forming the centre of a square—trees in rich blossoms , grass waving—yet , in the midst of a populous and manufacturing town the luxurious odour and beauty of flowers may be perceiv ed in all their infinitude of variety . And the working classes glory to do all this for them ; although , should they desire to go occasionally to snuff the air in such a neighbourhood —to catch a glance , they have to do it at the risk of being aent to prison for peeping over the walls or threugh the paling .
Let us see , then , what return is made—what the upper and middle classes do for the labourer in a similar way ? They causa cottages to be built for his accommodation , which , in fome respects , are little better than pigsties ; in general , two email rooms , with cellarhole for coals , when he can get any , for which he pays from live to six pounds per annum , with , or sometime * without , the local rates attached . There Is , ryutmiber , in tee first place , no common sewer , and , in con . « eqHence , 110 sumpstone or bole , inside , to tako utt' tins dirty water—all is obliged to be thrown upon tLe surface of tho street—the door must be thrown open at all
seasons if the hands only want wasaiug—no waterno set-put—and no many things . Rows of houses aro crowded together— an inch to spare { or nothing--- tUHjstand back to bock , by which streets are formed ; ami when a want of base iB the great difticuity with tho money-makiug speculator , dowu deeper he burrowsputs a family in the cellar , one in the middle , and another in the pile above : but the rarest thing in tho world , with such inhabitants , is a useable privy ur ashplace . The consequence of this is as I have bufore stated ; all ia thrown out upon the street , covered by ashes , or carried off by the rain as it is exhaled in vapours ; and the stencil wafted bock again into the houses , inducing fevers « nd death .
When surveying the East Ward , we found , at least , five hundred inhabitants , in one locality , entirely destitute of one useable privy . There were three In an entry , but the soil had not been removed of so long that they literally ran over—down the passage aud out at each end : the ash-boles were also tilled to ovei Hawing . And here , In summer time , the inhabitants , Who are chitfly Irish , empty their beds , consisting of chaff , shavings , fcc , to get rid of the filth which , certainly , makes the ash-pla ** a mwing concern . The surface of these streets , as a matter of course , is covered and irupaasabte ; for , how can it be otherwise . I remember finding , in another part of the town , a small batch cf property where , at least , one hundred peop le had but the use of one small privy . But there are scores of similar instances ; and whea the people are all at home , which . only happens on the Sabbath-day , half their time is employed in watching each other In and out , or they slip down behind walls or corners , or else annoy some other person's property where a better supply of
conveniences exists . The working classes have fewer artificial and more real and natural wanta tfaan the upper classes . Their kind of employment require * more labour and more expence la washing , whether in linen , person , or abode ; and , as if hell had betn raked to find means for their degradation and misery , every thing with which they have to do , only contributes to their oppression . Wages are reduced to the starving point , feod dear , and taxes accumulating ; and , with every " local disadvantage that avarice can inflict , is it to be wondered at it they dis-
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¦ ' . . ¦ . -= = * g cover an apathy and indifference , even ) for' themselves and their families' welfare , by quietly submitting to things as they are , rather than make , * s they say , a oo / fterabout it . Just lo # k at the ' mother of one r ; f ' . hew families . if she bethriftyand as good a housewife as one may expect now-a-dsys , should it be ! rainy weather , ' her young brood are kept within door *; if moderately fine , it is impossible to confine them , and out they go : in » few minutes little Pick is trougat itt- % some tt the elder branches , all covered over with imud . Tb * fact is , he pitched head foremost into'tta-gutter about a yard from the door , aad -was almost suffocated . Tomj who is bigger , comes in a few minutes later , holding up his sludgy bands , his brat besmeared with the same composition , bellowing like a bear ; he , too , has tumbled , or been pushed down by Billy Sauce 'em ; and thusthe poor mother has her hands full ; perhaps , no
, money , no water , no soap ; what is she te do ? Obi these dirty streets 1 she cries ; God help poor people ! we shall all be lost ! The father , too , who has hard to toil all day , and then to tramp » mile , or so , to his home , is ill clad and ill ahodi through such atroeta , such broken and bad causeways , in worse th * n the dark , past projecting steps , perhaps , is tripped up , tumbles down some " unprotected cellar , step ? , with which the town abounds , breaks an arm or * leg , if not his neck , is picked up by a saucy police < -r ^ ztcbman , -who swears he was drunk , 0 T he Would nut iuNM been there ,- lie la taken to the lock-up , thetu-J to toB > infirmary or ihe charnel house , sod Ml ftffijJy , pod * things , to the bastile , there to be separated ii . au their mother 1 and then , and then , and then—Go I Lr . ows what next . Some may say that this is overirawnmere fiction ; but , had I space , I could give facts , and " facts are more strange than fiction . "
Fearing to tieapaaa too much at once upoa 7001 valuable space , I must close . But , Sir , whtrr- is the remedy for these crying evils ? la there no w . iy out ? Thank God , yes . The power to make our own < aws ; to spend our own money ; to manage our own aiiairswhether general or local , will Boon put ail to right . Let the working men arouse from their slumbers , to " upset the World as it is . " Byror says in one place : — .-.,.., ' "The river looks on Marathon , And Marathon looks on the sea ; And musing there an hour alone , I dreamt that Greece might still be frev "
We do not dream , however , we know it ; and I wish that working men would " muse an hour alone" ovet what I have written for their benefit ; for I flitter myself facts like these , which come home to their abodes may stir them up to look further still ; v .: vi , \ rf a ceaseless agitation , and determination never to lend a helping hand to * ny farther scheme of ( ' ^ legislation , they will nail their colours to ' ? !>* mast head , and let the cry be , " Universal Suffr . - . r-. and No Surrender . " Let them consider who are tl > f ¦¦ ' vners of cottage property , and they will find the vai ?
majority to consist of those who are now seekni !; a brick and mortar franchise , for more effectually sw / in ^ theil own ends . Is not the . ' sincerity * of their prof * rssions seen in the present condition of cottage property ' : Let them wipe away this stain from their escutch > 1 . before they are entrusted with farther power . I am , dear Sir , Yours respectfully , Williah K . < , Superintendent of the statistical survey lately made in Leeds . Leeds , Feb . 5 , 184 . 1 .
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UNION IS STRENGTH . TO THE EDITOR OF THE NORTHERN STAR . Sir , —We read , that when the First Great Cause , by His all-powerful fiat , called all nature from the womb of nonentity , * » u , d had given each cuun . unent part of the system ltsplaco , office , or fumtion , be pronounced all things " GOOD , " yea , VERY GOOD ; but , somehow or ether , things have become VEH ' Y BAD . This latter fact is too well known to require the trouble of much close investigation . The Theologians of every shade—the philosopher * of every school—the politicians of every class—and . all the ties of every creed and kind—feel that some-thing 1 b out of order . . \
Well , what is it ? Why the canting barrel-bellied hypocrite who says he is "the Legate of tb * - Skies , " while enacting the tragedy of Rathcormac—ami who declares his office " sacred , " -while , fleecing the . flock , devouring the fat , and " robbing the widows'houses , " would fain have us give credenc * to hiB tub-, dropping » and become mute , seeing that our woes are only the chastisements of the Lord , for our Individual sins of omitaion and commission . Query . How ia it that the black wolves in sheep * * clothing , and their whelps , don't get a siicoof the
chastisement ? Is honest industry more deserving of the rod than those who have converted tke temple into a "den of thieves , " a&'dvwhohave carried desolation and misery to every cotter ' s hearth ? No , no , the blasphemy of these sanctimonious cratches of corruption is too glaring to arrest popular attention , further than to be condemned . Were the poor , the needy , the insulted and suffering millions to be taciturn at the conuvmd of this God-dishonouring gang of sable-coated aud blackhearted dissemblers , the stones beneath our feet would upbraid us for our infatuation , aad cuxso us for oil guilty silence .
Dont think , Sir , that I have stepped out to fire upon the whole crowd of parsons , enmasse , for I am certain there are some among them yet untouched by "the k > aven of unrighteousness , " though s « ch is the paucity of their numbers that , like comets , they are rarely seen , and the blessings attendant on their vibits "Few , ascl far between . " The philosophers of the Malthusian school , noable to disprove the existence of wide-spread misery , would have us subscribe to the doctrine of " redundant population , " and would , of course , have the poor , the working man , to disobey the command of his Creator , and counteract the dictates of nature . But tbis btastty
parson , and his brutal gang , have yet to demonstrate that God has made more mouths than he has created food to fill , and they als » forget to propound their doetrine to the wealthy idlers .. Would it not be far better to carry their dogmas to the palace rather than te the cot , and thunder them in the ears of the prince ratker than in those of the plebeian ? Certainly it would . But then , the prince would whisper to tham the bounty of geod John Bnll—he would tell thorn how well the old fellow proyities- for the breediiu ; and rearing of dogs , horses , monfceya , and brats , and , then-fore , their mission to the palace would be as fruitless as it is , and ever will be , to . the dwelling of the sons of toil .
There is another race of philosophers in this country , which ought not to be passed by without notice—I mean the Owenites , who are the antipodes of the Malthusian sect . Although I differ , in toto , from these men on points of theology , yet their view 3 of the present position of society , " and the remedial measures they propound for its reorganization , are such as demand the attention of every friend to his kind . The orcer of society is completely inverted : the circumstarces surrounding us , and with which we are brought into frequent contact , are such as , in ninety-nine ca ^ e * out of every hundred , militate against « ur indiviJunl interest , 0 * are inimical to the general weal . Society indubitably requires a remodelling : a different system of training must be adopted ; in short , " old things must pass away , and all things become new . "
li would be well if the Chartists and Socialists , gent rally , would think upon , the admirable saying of Bronterre " Every rational Socialist must be a Chartist , and every rational-Chartist must be a Socialist . " Allow me , Sir , to express my surprise that both parties do not act more in concert ; both have one object in view , namely , the happiness of the human race—both war against existing evils , and both ought to work together , leaving religious matters at home for more private use , as they ore not Weapons meet for political warfure . The Socialists nnd the Chartists bave both to combat thesamta enemy ; the objects . of both aro alike hostile lo the views , objects , and designs of those , wbo , for well-known reasons , love things-as they are . . 'flu * annihilation of Chartism , and the destruction of S < . 'i ; tlism , is the desire of "the powers that be" —l > ua are marked out as victims : therefore , let us aid each
other , which may be done without the least compromise on either hand . Separate from points of theological disputation , tbo two syaVtH . s niuot be amalgamated to « . n " cctiiate and give permanency t- > that state of human happiness' sought by both to bo attained . I had intended to allude to some of the plans , schemes , tricks , and subterfuges of the itinerating crotchet-mongers and pioneers of faction ; but I fear that my thread will be too long ) and shall , therefore , conclude by exhorting , the-Socialists to aid their Chartist bruthren in their effort to overthrow the present cannibal system , and establish freedom , and , consequently , happiness , on a firm and durable foundation . and
Let the Chartists beware of crotchet-mongers unprincipled agitators ; and , should a few unstable individuals in our own ranks , from motives' yet unknown , assail our organ , the Star , and ita conductor , heed them not—tares are yet among the whtat , and we must not be discomfited at the apostacy •« » tew , even though they have made . a trade of Chartism , ana live by it still . Something mysterious hangs over us , but a little tana will give a solution to the paradoxical conduct of certain parties . But let the Charter , the whole Charter , ana nothing less than the Charter , be our motto . Yours , teuly , W « . Rides . Leeds , Feb . 10 th , 1841 .
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~~»~ v «^ ' .. .. On Wednesday last , Robert Hume , James Farrar , and James Clifford , all attached to a theatrical company , lately performing at Whitehaven , were , after a long tmmination before the magistrates « f Workingtori , committed to our goal for trial ttthe ensuing assizes , on a charge of committing violent assault , with intent to murder , oa Robert Archibald , master mariner , and George Tbomlinson , farmer , both of Flimby . —Carlisle Journal . Infamous Charge . —William Fletcher , aged 21 , and James Chittern , 24 , both described as grooms , were sentenced to fifteen years' transportation , at the Central Criminal Court , for .. threatening to accuse a druggist of Westminster , nuned Cuudall , of an attempt to commit an abominable crime .
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* H-r ' AN T * . 6 - * rrrf # li ^ syi BF .. : : . f .
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Citation
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Feb. 13, 1841, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1096/page/7/
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