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Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
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.. \ j . = 1 v . ill ¦ K-ar , a ; I ? : i 5 t !•! xrorfiSj ^ . .., ' . ( . ojii mv •¦ iauco = r . jKii-rpen—ilcsds } , t ^ r- -- =- *• w ^ •¦»«! ' TJsa ^ tr-¦ Vikllnfci aih'J- ' i'ir'l , wliosags ' - - .: -o-A-i S-Tac-J * ! -: • - '• •)! 5 * tbe Kmajjer . "—Bthos . ¦ , 1 . V , AUSTRIA , 3 XU THE POPE . ... . .. u . :- . i ; er sa-st vr « 1 ; ! 'revcme » l us continuing . ; -r : " i icvcU ^ UsKf . •; .: ' liit < wieof Italv : we ; . ¦¦; . ¦ -: •¦ is ii : ! 'jocl . :::--,. o <; ! ' the cd «< j 9 iiG : ial part of the . ¦ - ; A 2 . - . 5 Si next i ; JtM :::: the financial and . -v : U '«¦;' ei ! t'tia « - ] -cnil / : irdy . We must , ; ' : c- ' i i' j the iiarr . j » b ' et i » r tlie tables ami - ; -= ,: •;;«¦ -w cired ty } -h : ih . i . 7 . isi . The fol-. „ - .-.- ¦ - „ -. t .- 'Vi * : ¦ = ¦ a £ U ) i $ j . « r . e -A - . ik , financial anil " . . - . . . -. ? mSI-iv ] by Italy uuthe Iiandsof ¦ . -,.- v- " -i . A-i s " « "hfissiaiate . 0 : eextraordinarv - ' . ' - ! .. ; -. '•'; ; ' «» = ir-. 'tUi ^ eut , active , and victorious v : . iic . Lombard people , struggle in our favour . j ^ Vt&rais which tlie revolution bc-stowed , and winch ' ^ jljtoiatiun cMild not take invar , twenty-nine years of " ^" aiulilie natnral pi ogress « f rirings , help the £ tru «« k ?" ;« flow success ; but Isavthat wherever the hand oi JyttmMt * ' s seen ^ als 0 fe t 0 ^ found an obstacle 2 i a lr . uilrar . ee . Tlie hand of tlie Austrian Goeewiuent is ^ " j ^ -i + n iuth e enormous import d uty on colonial pro-^^ on wines and spiri ts , upoa skins either raw or ftg lii , on spun cotton , < fcc , whicli creates the contrawjira . le , ana ruins iliian , the great emporium for the jjfjriuuJiseof tl » e country , by ordering matters so tl : at ^ oibr articles cost less in those provinces whicli border
< a i ! iv frontiers : the prohibition of foreign manufactures jj . Tlh , cotton , and wool , produce the same result , owin ? : ; i ; c insufficiency of the supply manufactured by the c-jte , tlie immoderate competition of the dealers , and the j . irjirices asked for contraband goods brought In from tSiiiUL Confined within narrow territorial limits , de-\ sKi \ entrance into tlie other Italian countries whicli < it a market for foreign manufactures , wanting thedijn -non of an Institute for industrial instruction , tlie jcibardo-Venetian manufactuiers cannot satisfy the fcnaml either with regard to quantity , variety , or beauty , j .-, T ]< rodure goods on equal terms with other countries . 71 . toud of tte Austrian Government means a system of litre and custom-house regulations which impedes the jte circulation of manufactures and colonial produce ,
,-. ta witliiu tlie country , and inflicts a fine on the projaalyr of a manufacture , every time a few kilogrammes ^ surprised in their transit from one town of the state iisiiother , witliout a license taken out from the place of . oni » s ; subjecting the merchants , in the frontier disa = rts especially , to the liability of having both their tarJiouses and dwellings searched by day and night , and ifon several times a week , lite hand of Hie Austrian ft ^; rjnii «( means a code of finance so involved , and so iJbcnre * that chance and caprice reign absolute sovciccni in tlie Lomuardo-Yenetian Provinces , , iinpo . sing jj ^ ujon arts and industry at random , to be extorted It ri-. tlcucc- ; to which fur the commercial man is added the JfcWMtiSe to * , imposed by the Camera di Coswiercia : it jntaiis tlie increase of the expense of protesting bills
. a ' tsrianj- 'e , the minimum of which is in Austrian lires { ,, {] , « rcnf < ir an amount below a hundred livres ; hjwhich nstts tlie Government fattens upon poverty , since the jainWr of protested bills increases in proportion tc the ladat-s oi trade . The Itand of tiie Austrian Government ¦ mats that unjustifiable act by which , hi 1 S 40 , the Lomlafj . j-Vcni . tian public debt , known as the MontcLombardo VokM , «»« increased by nearly tweuty-fivc millions t , to uauiu a lieavy loan fixrai the greatest usurer in Europe Bill some Of his colleagues—an act which p pread S « uit auiiicg the hoiutrs of coupons iu our Monte , aiid kuorktd i !« -. vn to 111 ( and at first even to 105 ) a arc i « r rait stock which was before selling at about Hi Tit hand of tlie Austrian Goternment means the monD'iu ? las on postage ( forty centimes from ililan to
2 'iawua , fimrtcen leagues distant from each other , CO ia- Ur ^ iv aud Jlotkna , SO for JSologna and Florence , tc . ' . tliusvestritJins uwveaud more the i « ttrcoursebejBrtSi I . oiu > ardy and Central Italy , already so tircumxritel by custom-house regulations 4 it means the eu-¦ : rea ! iscncc of a jury or tribunal of arbitration , to decide t&juites conscientiously and witli local knowledge , tc-< 3 un-process , anda faulty organisation of tlie commercial : rilu : i : i ! , before which tlie pleadings can only be through aa advocate , and where facts are always ucgUcltd f \> v ilajas . Whnt between th « system which prohibits tile iairwluciion of raw material , and the restricted market , we are forced in Loinbardy to csport « nr raw produce and t « n-ccire in return mauufactureil goods at high prices . Tliccarclesstraveller , ii .-ssingrapidlytliroughourpopulou
sotoij , is astonished at the luiury display ed in tliein : he ixh-s ant kuow that iu winter the Uosnilals are filled witb jnr = nliv icign ilienisclvcs ill , in order that tlity may rec .-iiv tin-re die means uf sustenance they could not find t ^ cniier e : he sees with admiration houses and palaces li * as by magic ; but he does not kuow that those are no sjr . 5 of prosperity , but only an investment forced upon cq&al , which cannot run the hazard of any enterprise of cuaisi-rcc , whilst trade is so hampered aud stationary . Wiat has the Austrian Government ever done to estal&l : Iiannony and unity in the relations of commercial aai in 3 uetrinl j > ol : cy ? It has adopted tlie decimal system su terdaiimis with tlie governed ; but at the same time junuittiug the governed themselves to make use of aai-iiut systems in thtir reciprocal dealing , so that a few
fcajaes distauce between to » vu aud town causes a differtfitvin the circulation of money , and make : i variation 5 a -die weights and measures . AVhat has the Austrian tiuccniineut done toivaids turning to practical use , by laijv hydraulic works for the btnefit of agriculture , the fjii . a ; streams which liow through Lombaidy % What has : t
aw im $ ial duty , aud by claiming for its own btneiit the ulii'le undertaking as soon as the lease expires : it has duiictliL- j-auie by the tdociferL Perhaps , sir , you say nn-lvttakings lilie these ought not to be instigated by (• wenuiieut , but that they ought to be left to private enttq > ri « f . 1 have not much faith in the miracles of lausez rir ? , v , l-tstcz passer ; but , however , that may be , recollect sir . : irat I am speaking of a country tfcsj > 3 l «" calty governed , nlifre tht spirit of association is seen with an eye of susl « iy ! i ; I am speaking of a country where individual aroii ; y is checked and crushed in a thousand ways . lVTitu Govenunent declares that the citizens of a country ar « to be kept iu tiie pcriietual tutelage of slaves , itimpli-«~ T lzndcra . kes to act for them a ; s-J to direct their affairs .
^ ir . JIazzixi next reviews tlie administration ofjnsfo iu Lombard—Venetian Italy , whicb ow ms , to thc ^• liijiitsi ty aud lanlincss of the proceedings , tTte multjl'liiity of laws , the enormity of judicial expenses , tut Itad anwi&ement of the prisons , anil the defective wsimisatkin of llse raagistraCT , is of tlie worst 05-sii * le eiiaraster . Eighty to ninety volumes form the gweramtnt tollcetum " of laws ; to which must be a' «' . ed the codes civil and criminal , the code of those Jcivleiuvaaouj's of which tl . c police takes cognisauce , "• "i'Uiie COilc of cusima-liou « i dues a « d reirulatioas , tuc Iiigh decrees of die judicial hierarchy—that is l <>> : iv , wiiwcilicy wLo ineside in the courts have to oeiiiic on questions wliercia a perfect knowledge of « ic itiliau aatl its disilects is indispensable—are Jiil od by Germans who cm hardly stammer the lau-Suaire . ilr . Mazzixi savs : —
Those concerned iu civil suits are often wearied oat , ay- ! renounce tliear claim , resigning theuisehes to the first lt ' .-S . Hut these deiocts have a more sei-i .-ius iniiueuce : n •• H : i ! J :: al caa = e . < . On the third of SeptemliiT 1 S 10 , an in-« - •; i-. x ! was brouglit up from the prison of Cor . 10 , who - ¦ : ' liit-n coiilhi'jil there for two years icilhonl 7 «; c ?; ij / l > jh > ri 1 '; ¦' '" ¦( . Bet not to dwell longer on special cases , the " - ¦ . ~ rr- ' : ice of which however rarely is sufficient to con' - - "¦ s : : ! : e sisttni , 1 assert that criminal causes geaeraVg i : -iiK- , tniable to work , or at least utterly unalile to lj- rav any : trowilcd , ten , fifteen , twenty together in l r :-. i \ iV jiris . jn , where the innocent perhaps , or those ; - £ ! :: ; . ¦ . _ , VWy . ;>; ., ] . { ciiujes are miiigh-d with runians aud
¦^• ' ¦ s as > , thfv come out as from aschool of lafamy , utterly «^ T . ; viij . Anil I « ay , that when the system by virtue of V-v 2 i ii : tjp j Iie ; , j . : ( j there , rtlies ou such a basis ¦ f ¦ * ¦¦¦ : < - < -y . nlhc jirocecdings , and the fate of the accused ' V--CV ; . in ilu- i ) aiiUS of a councillor invested at the same |« = > - «;!!! jiie fi ; actw : is of defender and judge , one can j-v ;; i .. r c-., i , , ive nor understand , eulojiums bestowed on '•• " ¦ «! : i : i ; -ira ;! on of Austrian justice , unless they are « ' ¦ ¦ y . tiil \ . y l >; iii jniUi or «« unpaniona ' ole ignorance ou a I "' -- " 3 : 1 Mliieli i > iil 3 io ! is of men are concerned . ' . '• :: 1 : ; e worst feature of Austrian despotism re-¦"' ' ^ '" , s si : o ; vn—tl . e system of cqmnage and ;'""¦ ¦ "c : e . There : ire in Lewbaidy aloiie 300 S 6 ? y « s z ? l jcidarnses , i-: > 3 police cnartls , *' v t oA * of uiu niardians
, „ , ; - _ - anny guardians , scr- « , ' t '* ' * ' *' * ' - ' *< ' ««" . guards of fortified places , « fce . ^ "Wicare raardsofti . e ironticrs , of the eomir . unes , , ' ' !* " ' ' !; ^ sud foKsts , of tiie towns , all under the of ' . \ ' ' I'W ' * - * - Tlierc are spies of the viceroy , ii ! - ' s 5 ? aVvri J ' the director of police , of the cora-J ! iT ' ; *' tiw ivifciatcs , of the diitriet-coinniis-. ^ f . ' ¦ is «! c . ] = s , " of the provosts , acting indc-,..- 'V' - •' - ¦ •* « si-h oiiwr , but ail joining the main rout 4 v " V ' T 5 ''" iite »* Viwa . " All this wms , " i , ; . M , - 'li «> xi , " all this iniquitous mob ( 1 do not 3 M = ' ^ . fi ?'"'•>> thrush that also is a tool of the M . T-ii- ,. 7 !* - l * rriuripal olgcet the . search after : \\ ... ' : ; ' }} ' ^ ** ' - " ' - 'f isational opinion . Tvitli this , in i t :,. ' : '" ' ' 5-snJ , ci-cjvtJuns ii <~ ai : < " <> is right , cverylv
- ] '~ -. ' | - i ! iti od lo h . Evfrvy outrage is allowed 9 t ^ | ll ) i i - & : - ° " « i Cr even the shadow of protccl > i ; " - " - i v < : ll " vr a di * i : o :: est warfare , without ¦ ' . " ' \ VlJl' - '' at > lianie , earned on in darkness , by [ ' . rf «« ub : iie all the tricks of chicane with V !" . " t ! u 5 « ""rfty of an licrjuois . " j 5 "' " - - ijzzi . \ i aiatrs the ibll wii : j awful picture oi { . y : 1 l : ivs itiiicted o « tlie su ? v . eded patriots in tl \ c - --. n ;; ii flnii » eo « s , and the Ltllisli system of cspion'f , «• . wJiK-h they are the victims , ' h must be re-J ?;'"» -icdi ] iai ilr . ihzzisi is addressing Sir Jjlmes ¦ j-AjiiM . v . lio , if he . has a particle of conscience ' - >¦ , ajust iurc 5 y feel the toriuics of reir . oi'se . shame ,
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and self-detestation , when remembering the vile part he has performed in helping to furnish , victims to glut the cold-blooded sava Sery of Metiersich and LO . * : . .. ; . _ ; Have you ever read , sir , two bocks from the pens « f political sufferers at tiie Austrian Spielberg , Silvio l ' ellico and Audryane , containingthe account of their Fuffcrin- ' ; ' WTijtemvithso much niodeiatum that one oi Uinabas been allowed to be printed and reprinted ia I ' uh ? If you have not , sir , endeavour to find time , between the is ' suin " of one warrant and another , to glance over them . Tert haps when you learn the vengeance that overtakes political offenders in Austrian Italy §—when you sec , beside the horrors alluded to in the note , the torture of
hunger , litcraily of lui ^ er , inflicted upon tliaia ; when you see 1 'ietro Maroucelli losiug his left leg in consequence of the weight ar . d pressure of his fetters—losing it by amputation at the upper part of the thigh , because the Goveruor of Spielberg , having received his prUoiU'r With two legs , was obliged to give him up in the samu Condition , and tiiereforc could not allow the operation r 0 take place until he had received a sauction from Viennaperhaps , I say , you will then have a glimmering perception uf tiie . trariWe responsibility which is attached to the communication of intelligence obtained from the correspondence of any foreigner over whom vou mav ulav Hip spyou behalf of Austria . * ) M - ;
And-do you snow , sir , how people reach Spielber * fromLombardy ? Are you aware bow slight a matter when ouce the suspicions of Austria are excited , is sum ' dent to precipitate the victim t > . ither ! Take tlie tri-iic of 1820-21 , they will tell you . They will tell m , ™ Colonel Silvio Moretti was condemned to liftceu years of thecar « re Juro , upon what were called indichl proofs founded on false statements m -de against him h y some of hisfcllow-accused , when , in consequence of a report of his suicide spread through the prisons by the Government , they believed him past danger ; but rctraeted by them when they saw him alive before the court . They . .
will tell you of Lieutenant Giovauni Bachiega sentenced to fifteen years of tlie careere duro , as convicted not only ofatovxd Itfstile intentions towards tiie Imperial JTouse of Austria , lut as disposed to resist it arms inland : and this bi-cause he replied " Certainly" to the judge ' s demand , " WonMyonbear arms for Italy , if some day slie should rise nationally ? " They will tell you of Itezia , an ex-Captain of Enpneers , condemned to three years of the careere dxiro in " the castle uf Laybach , because he gave an ambiguous reply to the judge ' s question of " whether he would have denounced a Carbonaro if he . had known him to be such ;" and this was ruled to be an answer in the negative .
Do noifaucy , sir , thattheseareexceptionalcases , which might have been produced from the terror excited in Austria by the insurrections of Naples and Piedmont : I could show many similar examples in the trials of 1831 and 18 : 33 . But it is not in these iniquitous condemnations to Spielberg , these coups d ' edat of Austrian justice , that lies the wound which festers in Lombardy : it is possible , when nationality is a belief , not a reaction to leave Spielberg , like my estimable friend Dr . Foresti , calm , unmoved , the same as the man of fifteen years before , itis the general system , at work round each individual at work each day of the year , each hour of the day endeavouring to crush under mistrust , suspicion , and fear , the moral faculties of our youth , to which I would noiut : it
is the brutal exhibition of physical force , from thelevelled cannons on the Duomo at Milan , mute but eloquent symbols , down to the insolence of the police-guards who encumber the streets day and night—from the base and brutal manner in which the Austrian officers treat the young men of the University of Pavia on the least appearance " of disorder , down to the liberty granted to custom-house officers to fire on smugglers iu their fli ght : it is the arbitrary and frequent refusal of passports ' for foreign countries , and even for the interior , combined with the enormous penalties on those who dare to do without them ; the unlimited aud irresponsible power of arrest given to the police ; the prohibition of inviting one ' s friends to a ball without previously giviug notice to tlie police : it is the habitual violation of Government
amnesties , such as , formstance , caused De Luigi to be refused permission to exercise his profession of advocate , although' the words of the decree in the faith of whicli he returned did not contain any such restriction ; such as threw in prison laucefti , another amnestied emigrant , who , at the end of two years , ruined by his hard treatment , was set at liberty to die , invoking curses on his persecutors : it is the omnipotence granted to the superior agents of the police , going even to impiety , and producing , in what concerns political cases , such monstrous facts as that of the Count liolza forcing a sacristan to give Mm a consecrated wafer , which he administered himself in 1833 to one Bianchi , who was in prison wl dying , to do away with ; iH excuse for aiuni't *} - ' within
tlie walls even a priest ; the violation but'Uiat " « 1 ii > i < u strike you , Sir James , as anything very immoral ftz violation of private correspondence ; the preceUo in iho name of the police and without any interference on the part oftlie tribunals , forbidding hundreds Of individuals from leaving tlie town for aaMudtfinite time : and beyond all this , itis the system of espionage , organised on such a scale that in the city of Milan alone it ? costs * the sum of near 200 , 000 Austrian livros a month , invading the peace of families , breaking the bonds of friendsb ip , scattering tie seeds of selfisin and corruption , gaining its < nds by calumny , going even the length of provoking crime when it can discover none to reveal—distributing revolutionary documents with one hand au ' d Signing a dnnuciaetion with the other . Next week we shall exhibit the abominations of the Papal Government .
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* So obscure , in fact , that the Aulic Council , by who = e ageuey the code was issued , was obliged some seven or eteUieavsa » otocj » U in the assistance of a Iloval Lombard Commission , to settle the best isterpretation to be put on certain clauses . t The debt known as the Monte Lqmlardo-Vencto , which devolved on Austria with our provinces in 1 S 15 , was the quota falling to us , on a proportional division with other Italian States , of the public debt of the Kingdom of Italy , known as the Monte Xapoleme ; which in its turn partly arose from the recognition and transmutation of the olu provincial debts . There is now talk of a projected addition of fifteen millions more .
$ For the convenience of a private letter-box , commercial men pay five centimes extra fur every letter . I The condemned shall be confined in a dungeon , secluded from all communication , with only so much light aud space as is necessary to sustain life ; he shall be constantly loaded with heavy fetters on tlie hands and feet : he shall never , except during the huurs of labour , be without a chain attached to a eircle of iron rouud his body ; his diet shall be bread aud water , a hot ration everv second day ; but never any animal food—bis bed to be composed of naked planks , and he shall be forbidden to see any one —without exception . "—Such is the definition of the careere durisshno in the l ' enal Code , 5 14 , -
The hot ration ( cibo aildo ) consists of slices of bread steeped iu hot water , and flavoured with tallow . It is a common thing for those condemned to the careere duro to wear twenty-pounds weight of chains ; they are worked like gal !« y-slnves , and lure neither light nor jiaper nor books : never , except sometimes by an extraordinarv favour on Sundays ( to atteuU mass , ) leaving their coW and humid cells .
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Xigiit Ascent of Mr . Green , is nis Ballo ts , WITH FlItEWOKKS , FI 10 M V . MJXIIALL G . UtDEXS . —On Monday night this celebrated aerial voyager undertook the perilous feat of a night ascent in his balloon , displaying fireworks of a novel and extraordinary description from the car . The gardens were crowded . The balloon selected by Mr . Green was tllu Albion , formerl y the property " of Mr , llampton , an in'repid aeronaut . Mr . Green considerably enlarged it , and it will now contain 2 G . 0 U 0 cubic feet of gas , and stands 60 feet in height . Mr . Darby , the artist to the gardens , had the arrangement of the fireworks , which were attached to a frame- or wheel , and this was suspended to the car by a line of about 70 feet in length , attached to a swivel , so that it
might spin freely in the air , and thus increase the elieet of the display . The frame consisted of three conjunct wheels , the radius of each being six feet , the : circumference of the entire frame 30 feet , and the separation between each wheel 15 inches . Mr . Green was provided with a regulating winch in tlie car , so that he was enabled to wind up or lower the fraine with the fireworks at pleasure . The fireworks consisted of variegated lights , Italian gerbs , with les pttlt cvnlcs , coloured Roman candles , French jets , ami Chinese streams of tire , concluding with an enormous bouquet of coloured fires . Mr . Green , on ascendiuij the car , stated that this was his three hundred and fifth ascent , and that it was twenty-one years since he first ascended with fireworks , on whic
occasion lie alighted at King George ' s farm at Richmond . The car was then attaehel to the balloon , Mr . Green previously depositing in it his barometer , a large lantern of peculiar coiistnietisn , his compass , map , a guide-line of about a thousand feet , nrapnel , and between two and three hundred weight of ballast , jii b . ij > s Taryijig- from ten to twenty pounds cacll ; likewise a number of coloured lights ' to assist him in his descent . The frame with the fireworks was then aliixcd to tlie car , great care being takou to prevent its position being reversed from the horizontal to the vertkal , as in the case of Madame Blauclmrd , who
lost her life in a night ascent at Paris , the frame , by , an accident , becoming reversed , and the fireworks ' consequently playing into the car , instead or' beneath the balloon , ignited the silk , and an explosion ensued . At eleven o ' clock the signal for ascent was given . Mr . Green immediately seized the " liberating iron" with one hand , and lighting the fu ? ce with the other , the ascent tool ; place , amidst the cheers of the assembled ti-. ousar . ds outside the gardens , aiul of the company within . The 'irewos-ks in a few second ? wore discharged , and a more brilliant aerial exhibition was never witnessed . Tlie balloon took a jiorthcrn direction , and it was scnerallv
consiucrcd thai Mr . Green would land in Middlesex . Tiie ascent will be repeated . Goversjiext has very properly made a . crant oi £ 20 , 000 for the relief o * f the sufe-rera-by the zrcat fires at Quebec . Axotuer Cvee whex almost jit Death ' s noon , by Hollow-ay ' s Pills . —Mrs . Williams , a lady of fortune , residing at Clajihani-rise , was aiven up by the mosi eminent medical men . who all " agreed that she had what : 5 s termed . " no inside left , " her stomach , liver , and heart v . crc in a most tlisordeied condition , and aHogether so generally debilitated , as to be scarcely able to walk twenty yards without fainting ; however , in two months , by undenroing a course ot this hivigoratin . ; ' and life-preserving medicine , she has resjaincd her former health and stren-jth , and can now walk twent y railesad-. iv .
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TO TUE EDITOR OF THE SOMHERS 8 TAlC" ~^^ ¦ Sib , —The letter / which roadies you . under tills COVeT was originally designed for publication iu tlie Nation newspaper , as the proper vehicle to contain a refutation of the Slanderous statements and unch : irit ; , lilu s . iitimeiits transferred from tiie lips « . f uur vwy l ,: sh Libeu woa !" to its columns . Sudi , however , is . the state of things here with regard to the Conciliation lla u censorship exercised over the press , with which it pretends to disclaim all connection , that the . Editor of this best of our Dublin
Liberal " ipriniv politely returned me the MS : in a note , stating that liedeelim-d publishing it , "lest evil instead of good might arise . " from its appearance . The Editor has a perfect right to protect his pecuniary interests , and perhaps if he fears tliat ' evil- way accrue to me , on the "hooting ! system , I ourfitto thank him for his watchful tenderness , but having already borne the denunciation of the great leader , I am callous to his abuse , and will not place truth in abeyance , lest evil may fall on the enemies . of toleration , tlie foes of charity , if not of Christianity . 1 trust , sir ,: you will do me the justice denied by tlie Xui . lori as an old reader and admirer of the Star . \ V . II . Dyoit
!" CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LUJE 11 TY . : ¦ ¦ - To the Editor of the Nation . 1 Sir , —It may be asserted of your journal , and witliout the suspicion of flattery , that it is . inoru fearlessly independent aud more magnanimousl y just , than anv other newspaper claiming for itself the designation "Liberal " in Ireland , for while with unequalled ability aud unrivalled spirit it brings the whole artillery of literature to hear upon the natioual foe , still the courtesies af civilised : warfare are preserved , and even the enemy must allow that his assailants , and in instances I trust to be multiplied , his conquerors—are gentlemen . It" sucil be the character established by . the- conductors ' of . the Nation amongst forei gn adversaries , much inure havu they gained for themselves , amongst : their own countrymen all the
respect and admiration , which must ever be consequent on pursuing the path of principle with miuiliuess , moderation , and justice—allowing no merely ' ' factious" or sectarian bias to warn or distort tiie ever glorious truth ; allowing fairly for the honest prejudices of . inen who have been taught to- differ from them , ami reciprocating esteem with those who as manfully combatfor their peculiar convictions . Such aline of conduct has earned for the JVation reverence , : » ye , and authority , ' toe , even amongst the Orangemen of the nortli , from which " I have ' but just returned , or ; l would bafure this have claimed on the part of outraged 'J Civil and Religious Liberty" a corner in . the valuable columns of your journal . I claim it now , solemnly and emphatically claim it , as a rightful concession to eternal justice , to slandered Christianity , aud ; to insulted liberty . ' ' "
Inthe . &ot « mof thel 2 th of July , I find tlie following passage : — ' "If there be infidels amongst us they must have , the hypocrisy to conceal their principles , for well they know that if they were to make a profession of them , they would be hooted from society . !"—Speecli of Mr . Daniel O'Cdnncll at "Conciliation Jail ' on Mowhty , July 7 fft , as reported in the Xatioiu ' Now , Mr . Editor , as a person , deeply conversant with the tonejof popular feeling , I ask you , do you really believe tlie above statement , or de you not agree with me that it is unfounded in fact and grossly slanderous upon the Christians of the present day ? What ! if a man happens to be so " invincibly ignorant , " so hopelessly obtuse , as to arrive at conclusions , on matters mystical and miraculous , in accordance with those entertained b y Bayh , Gibbon , Ilosseau . 'Owcn , and others of the Pliiloso * phic cast ^ and if he be honestly simple enough tocandidly express his theological sentiments , do you really believe that the good Christians of these days would ferociously
" hoot" him out of society ! or being allowed to go as far as "hooting" by their " moral force" commander , try perhaps to change his sentiments ' by . alterations on lus ccrebal region—such as raising a " bump" on his " veneration" department , &c . Seriously , sir , if such be the case , what advances , after all our clamourin g , have we made in tho true understanding , and real practice of civil and religious liberty ? And if it be not the case , must not the man be deeply depraved in heart by the venemous taint of a relentless bigotry , who daves to give utterance to such ' sentiments for himself—much / more , to ch-irge them on the entire body of the ' orthodox V If such sentiments are not entertained by the Christians of Ireland—and J do not believe they are—will any of them have manliness to come forwavd now , to disavow and to repudiate them ?—Will they show that theh- ' ciMxrrr iscqual to their FaiUit or are we , indeed , to sit down iu tb . 3 bolief that"Toleration , " however talked about , is a doctrine whicli only includes those sects which are- numerous enough to tfofi'iuUhemselves , while civil excomtu ' unicar-on . " ' hOfHi'i , ; nut of sooittv . " h to bs the ccntle
veir . 'v . oJ v . itiiivUii :: i iit ' jjiest coiijeteutbuf : ( liss-tiut fvO !* i popular ; md (• ¦• . ! i-5- . h wefcd ? is to \ k mei i Sir , wo t :.- . iiiov dif ^ uife iho fiict—sue ' l . w tlicexiigsition of Christianity , given by one of its BiuSi liujsirlous iyy defenders in . the nineteenth century—it lias no bowel ' s for the unbalie ' vgr ; the wall of partition ( according to Mr . O'Conncll ) between Jew and Gentile might as well have never been thrown down ; aud , had he lived in the days of the , apostles I doubt not but'lie would have resisted St . Paul on Circumcisioii and St . Peter 011 Pork ! But I fearlessly demand of Sir . O'Connell , where , ' in the Bible , except in the . bloody dispensation of the Jews , from which the new law that God "in" the fbUncss of time " thought proper to deliver to the world , redeemed us , he finds ground for the inhuman doctrine of" hooting men
out of society" for their religious opinions , however erroneous . I am confident that the Christian priesthood of Ireland will make no such discovery in the New Testament , and Hint if they did , they would blush to find the unchatt . ta ' blc record there . " And shall the arrogance of any layman , no matter what his celebrity or authority in other matters , lead ' him to fulminate his auathema ' s against men who , inorally , may be as jiood as himself at least ! What is it to me that tbe fires of Smkhfield be extinguished b y civilising processes of time . if lam to be dared to come forth , in order that I may be destroyed—for if I be hooted out of society , made a pariah in the land of my birth , Lam socially annihilated or obliged to remain silent with that less of self-respect , which ever must wait upon hypocrisy enforced ? Better be ' murdered at once than driven from the haunts and sympathies of men .
But mark , sir , the inconsistency of Sir . O'Connell : he is the advocate of the Jews , not , I am sure , from interesti d motives as other great men are , and yet the Jews do most cordially detest the memory of Christ as an impostor , who troubled their Rabbis and blasphemed their God . Did not he ( Mr . O'C . ) deem Raphael a renegade infidel Jew , and though a "kind of Chrysalis Christian , " ' a most incomprehensible vagabond , " sufficiently good to represent tlie Christian constituency of Carlow ! And did he not select for his own coadjutor in administering tlie parliamentary rights of the Catholics of Dublin , a gentleman named Hutten , an extreme Unitarian , who , beiug true to his own principles , must repudiate the divinity of Christ , even if . he allow the virginity of his mother ; nay , he ( Mr . O'C . ) then hurled civil-exconimunication against the pious timid , ' who from a religious scruple hesitated to vote for this gentleman . '
Truly , sir , Sir . O'Connell appears to have vacillated on the question of religious liberty to quite as great an extent as upon the subject of Poor Laws ^ and only to ha ve got as far at any time as what philosophers call the " pivot" point . He seems now , indeed , to have abandoned " toleration" altogether , and changed his sentiments as completely on the subject of Christian charity as ou that of - ' mixed education . " God grant that Ill ' s next aberration be not on " repeal . " for 1 am content to count the slight oscillation towards federalism which you , sir , corrected as an error , rather more ' venial than theslin with regard to the " wings" so unmercifull y clipped by poor Jack Lawless , whose soul may God assoillsizc . '
Iu sending you this letter , sir , I have acted buth on impulse and with deliberation . I consider that liberty can never be sa'd to exist whilst any class among men are oppressed . 1 think it opposed to the genius of Christianity as well as tl e plain dictates of jnslice , to exercise tei rorism over' the variations of human thought . In all ages , some of the most celebrated wen , whether for scientific and literary attainments , forpublic virtue or for private worth , have hi en of what is maliciously termed the " infidel" school—they exist largely in France , England , America , and every country of progress at present , and there are soaie of- them in Ireland too , notwithstanding what Mr . O'dmnell asserts to the contrary . To these men I would extend the protection of the law , and the courtesies of society , makitv . ' then for tfieir actions alone , like any other sect , responsible . 1 haw argued the matter both as a Christian and as a Dcisr , without avowing myself either ; what has the world to do with mj
opinions : I oppugn no man for his . Uut 1 claim for all what each demands—freedom jf thought and liberty of speech , and though I should again be denounced as a ' fellow , " and a " miscreant , " aye , sir , even should vou belauded for the " praiseworthy propriety" with which you may refuse me the insertion of this letter ., st'U will I struggle undismayed , to assert that liberty , without wlrleli life is disrobed of half its dignity , and to hold up to the moral indignation of the world , tlie base betrayers of their mission , who , wi ; li lips absolutely hired to preach freedom in its fullest extent , daily give utterance to sentiments totally subversive of the ends they themselves nflect to prcpuse , and whilst thus stultifying former proposition ? , forget that an intelligent foe will not fail to note the discrepancies of their speeches and the spuriousness of their doctrines—retarding the great cause of human progression , although most unjustly , on account of the imperfections of its loudest , I will not say its most sincere , advocates , lest I should inflict a wound on truth .
I trust I may be acquitted of any presumption in publishing this itUcr . Xo man is too humble , and every man in a free community has the right to be hear : ! . I am not satisfied with aso-farahhlt-thou-go-and-no-fhrthei sort ( if freedom of opinion . Intolerance must be altogether given up ; indeed , 1 bad hi-gun to hope that expediency had dug its grave , and justice consigned it to oblivion in that pence which it had long denied the world . Sacred for ever be the rights of conscience ! VTa would do well to imitate our irarisaihiitii' brMlmii . A convention of "infidels" met the other day in America , who were neither " hooted" nor maltreated , though an orthodox journal passed a good joke enough on the occiisioii , » y saying that they looted as if they fell out with God Almighty fur making them so ugly , the majority of tlieii faces being suvh as Lnvalcr would not countenance .
Strong in my own motives , Sir . Editor , putting faith ii your fairness , and homing to arrest the viie practice 0 sectarian denunciation , by claiming liberty , both civil am rcli ^ ousfor roan , whether Wack , ivliite , Christian , l ' a ' , -an or Jew . ' I innsiin , with prof-un-1 respect , your cbitlient servant , ! 24 , No ill Kins .: ree : . V . \ IM ) tott .
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FIELD-GARDEN OPERATIONS . . ' .. For tht Witk commencing Monday , Aug . UfA , 1843 . [ Extracted from aViwtcf Actual Operations ofrfive * na ! l tarms on Uw status oi' tiie late Mrs . U . Oilbevtj near . fcasiuiniriie , m busa-x ; uhu oh several model farms- un tho estates of tlie Earl of Dartmouth- ' at Siaithraite , in Yorkshire , published by Mr .-Novell , ' ot l « ar .. lcy lyas , nuiu . llucldcrsfield , in order to guido other possessors oi' field ' gardens , 'b y showing them what labours-ought to be undertaken 011 their own lauds . 1 lie - tarms selected as models arc—l'irst I ' wo school farms-at Willing-don and Ea ' stdean , oi
live acres each ; conducted by U . 'Cruttenden and John Ham s . Second . Two private -farms , - of five or six acres : one worked by Jesse riper , the other by- John Uumbrell—tlio- former at liastdeauV the laitei- ' at Jcvimjtbii—all of them within a few miles of Eastuoui'tKj . ' Third ; An industrial schoolTanu at Slaitliwaitc . Fourth . Several private model farms near the same place . Theconsecutive operations in these reports . viil enabie the curious reader to . compare the climate ind agricultural value of the south with the north oi England . The Diary is aided bv "Notesand Observations " from the' pen of 'Mr . JS ' owcll , calculated foi dm time and season , which we subjoin .
" 1 lie wisest men—tlie greatest philosophers—after in vain seeking for happiness in every variety of pursuit , have found it iu the cultivation of the ground . * " ' ' Xotk . — r /(« school farms are cultivated by boys , whs in return for three : hours' teaching , in the morning , give three hours of their labour . ™ the afternoon for the master s benefit , which nndmHha schools sklfsuwoitnxa . We believe that-at Famly Tyas sixsevenths of tha produce of tlie sclnoi : farm will 6 c assigned to the boys , and one-seventh to the master , luho will receive the usual school fees , help the boys to cul' tivate their land , and teacli . them , m addition to reading , writing , etc ., 0 convert thtir produce into . hacon , \ by attending to pig-keeping , wlikh at Christmat may be divided , after paying rent and levy , amongst them in 2 > rbporti 6 n . to their services , and bemadc tlatsihdirectly to reach their parents in a way the must gratefd ' to theirfedinqsA
- ' ..:- .- . ? Sl ! SSEX . "\ . . ' :. - . ... . . ; Monday— WilUngdon School . No report for the week , probably the . little boy ' soui with the farmers , Piper . Reaping wheat . JJumbrell . Digging up tare ground , and reaping wheat . ¦ ¦ ' : . .,-Tuesday—1 'iper . Heaping , wheat . Dumbrcll . Digging up tare ground , reaping wheat ,. anil hoeing turnips . - . ¦ -... ; , , . ..- ¦ Wednesday— -Piper . Cleaning pig stye , and . reaping \\ hea , tf . z ? jjumorell . Transplanting swede turnips , . ¦¦ digging . up tare ground , and reaping wheat ami : oats .- . ' - ... - . . ... Thursday—Piper . Reaping . wheat . Dumbrell . Mowing oats , and reaping wheat .. , . ¦ . Friday—Piper , Mending lucerne with liquid . Ihira brcll . Reaping oats , and wheat . ; -, Saturday—Piper . Finished \ yheat reaping , and pulling peas . ; bumbrell . Mowing oats , reaping wheat , and emptying tbe privy pails .
• COW-FEEDING ; . Piper . Cows are feeding upon white turnips , grown upon the land where the rye and tares came oil last spring !! •¦ - ¦ ¦ ¦•¦' ¦ . : ¦ , Dumbrell . During the week ono cow grazed in the day . and fed morn and even with 40 Ibs . of cabbage . And one cow and heifer stall-fed " entirely ,-with lGJibs . of tares . J ¦ ¦ . . Dung . Mixexs . —Behind the cow-house inthsriiairi yard you should have a spacious area , divided by a roadway in the middle , ! and allowing on cither side a roomy ; quadrant shaped . floor , upon which to compost the manure ejected from the csw-house . It should beenclo-cd by a wall , acting as a breastwork
to the manure heap whenformed , which will prevent evaporation , and escape of liquid from its sides , by restoring what nitrates to the floor of tho mixen . This yard is to bo your agricultural laboratory for truly , many chemical changes , although invisible to you , will there be effected , arid a great variety of valuable products obtained for future use . As the dung mixen , which contains these products ; is a most important agent—it is a thing for you to be verv proud of . " ' You may send across the seas to th ' e Chiiicha islands , or to Ichaboe , for guano ; but in a dung mixen , properly compounded , you will find , to a certain extent , all the ingredients that give that excellent nianiirfi its v . iliifi . •
fASK ...-Iu putting down the tank , oi- forming the . '• ooys ioi' these niixfms . ;\ ll your care ' will bo required s ' o'i . ' iiiiv-.-ione oi ' y ' oxiv " jjui& ^ rcw . v be lost .. The best Aace .. for the csuik will be . is ' eVir tiVff i / ini ; " ! :. ™ ' 9 jl ; fi composting yard , y >;; ni y under onu of the mi . « sfis , but also reaching under the wall into the uuiin yard , so that its contents may be inspected from without . There let it be placed , in a pit sunk within the ground , so low , that there maybe a-good descent towards it from every part of the yard . It may be formed of bricks ; or , what is better , of stones grooved and jointed , and placed upon a floor of well puddled clay at , the bottom of the pit . After it is placed there , it must be cemented well together , and surrounded with clay puddle well beaten down at its sides , particularly at the bottom and corners . After the tank is completed , let your gutters or channelled stones be Jaid down to it in a direct'line , across tlie
ool-s o ( tUc mixens , from the co > v-house , pi "gory Ac , with care ; and then leftlie ' whole floors be filled to the heicht of the channel stones , With well beaten clay puddle , at an inclination from tlie outer walls in all directions to tlicih . ' Let these tight clay floors be paved with rough stones , so that all drainings from the mixen by falling upon them may be conveyed to the gutters , and joining the liquid huts passage from the cow-lodge or other sources both ' niay flow without interruption to the tank . To promote this , the gutters , . ' is also that' part of the tank which Is intended to lie under the mixen , must be covered with loose stones , to prevent the intrusion of manure from above them . 'Let the water from the eves of the holding , and top water from every source , be led away auooetiier from this yard , axd tank ; and yc uT manure manuactory , with the exception of placing the pump , will be completed .
Task Liquid Pdjp . —Within , and near the doorway of , the composting yard , place down your pump , so tliafc its working barrel being buried in tlie warm manure heap \ ip to the cistern , the freezing of its contents during winter may be prevented . The lever of the pump : must , projeot over the wall , and be worked in the main yard , while its delivering pipe may be furnished with . 1 wooden spout eight or ten feet long , connected together by a swivel joint , round winch it turns horizontally—inwards—over the manure , in order that the , tank liquid being pumped may flow over , either mixen—or outwards , into a water barrel mounted upon wheels , standing in the main yard , from whence it becomes removed to the growing crops , or applied to other purposes .
Size op Task . —In regard to the size of tlie tank , one of five feet iu length , three feet in breadth , and three feet in depth , has boon found quito sufficient for eight or ten head of cattle ; it will be filled generally in about seventeen days . Such a tank maybe emptied , and its contents spread upon grass near the homestead in about an hour . In the West of Yorkshire , the cost of one of the above dimensions , exclusive of digging the pit , and the puddling , wili be about fifty shillings . Temporary Tank . —If a cottager , or his landlord , wishes to avoid expense , a good substitute will be found by sinking within the "round brieov two oil
pipes , or sugar hogsheads , connected'by ' a ' tube at the bottom , and placing them upon a bed of puddled clay well beaten , having the sides well enwrapped with the same material ; as the girths decay , the ves « els . byexternal pressurewillrcniainfirmly united together and last many years , especially if tile inside be charred . I must beg you , however , ' during the fixing of these things , always to remember , ami Imvo uppermost in your mjnd , that a single aperture , through whicli a knitting needle could scarcely pas ? , maybe the moans of tapping your tank , and withdrawing part of its contents , while you remain in ignorance of its existence .
JlETnon of CoMrosTixG Manure . —Spread equally and cover the whole of each mixen floor , with a hvyer of cow dung , horsa litter , < fcc ., to the thickness of eight or ten inches , and keep the lona straw nearest the floor . Then for every cart load of fresh dun ? take 10 or ] sb » . of gypsum ( plaster of Paris ) pounded from the rock , which will cost you from 2 s . Ccl to 8 * per cwt ., sprinkle it over tiie surface of the layer of dun ? . Bring in a load of mould from headlands decaying roots , scouring of ditches , road scranin- 's ' stubble , saw dust indeed nothing can come uinfss ' and leaving it on the compostinjt yard navoment . * . l . ^
cart may pass throus 1 the cow-Iodgc without UlHiili " round . Let the rubbish , so left , be handed to eiSr mixen , and spread over the surface ; moreover wh ' on you can , at intervals , obtain a load or two of earthv nia ter , yon way _ spread it upon the other . In this ' frH , l ! , Jl " r r ^ f ™! ' "' - Ulltil J-OU-lMlYOa t iit-ah supply . ot ( lung under the manure doors , then i iork over the fret stratum , mixing the dung 5 , mould or rubbish we I together , and proceed just as before careinl noitnci- to omit the gypsum , ' nor nionlu , in lorming a second one . Previous to forming another ,, repeat the forking over of the previous layer , and utter a few repetitions , pump and diffuse over he whole surface as much tank liquid a " i completely saturate the manure heap , anl anv execs ' will hill back again into the tank ; and thisVneat from time tu . time , wlicu it may bo deemed ncccK to do so . With many animals in the byres , and iSh space in the yard , you may thus creaI . an Z 1 ""
uuiK ot im nuve , rich , and uniformly mixed . TCBTIIKII JIKASS OF ECMCIHXO THE MlXES .-Yoiir ? vK ttv wTi " i ' supplicd with iVcsh " ii !« ; n ' tl ... 7 W lnt 0 tlle richcst compost ; it hc i en 'n ' - ? y " -l ° cnm ^ ounJcd into tlienmen . lhe night-soil compost , hereafter described , may be also used in the same manner Pkopkb Method of Counting JIumax Manure .-A acij ingenious method is followed by the- Eastbourne 1 fiuH-garduncra , in order to collect all the cxcrementitious matter voided-in the privies :- \ a
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ale cask with one end removed , large butter firkin , or tub , value about 2 s . 6 d is provided : a few inches i below its'top , ¦ two ' strdiig iron ears ' or liaiuUes , " are j firmly rivetted , for tlie convenience of removing it . Two of these tubsaro usually placed under the privy scats , and when nearly filled are easily , removed to the cpmr-bstui !! shed by two peivains . Piich ' takiiig . liold ofahandle . . Thi-yar ^ tlieii tunnj- 'UiiisiMeii ' . ' -Vi ! , and the , contents received upon , mould , iunl iimiiediatcly composted . with more inpiild ,. ashes , or otliur refuse , using 8 . or lOlbs , of gypsum ( plaster . of T / iris ) for each pail full of . materials . This ' mixture milv ' be further enriched by , the addition of tank liquid , beating all well . together to the . consistency of mason ' s lime ; when spread iipou the ' floor of the shed it will soon dry spontatieously ,, and be-found a most , valuable top-dressing for every kind of . crop , " upon which it . may be sown . by hand , Jor all offensive . stugll is speedily rempyed by . tho ; action of the gyp ' suni , ' and the retentive quality of the mould or ashes . .
¦ VuniFiCATiOS . OF Cities . —[ "Tho annual loss in England , in liquid manure alone , has been estimated at sewn millions sterling !' . " ]—Were this simple ' method adopted in town ' and country , then might we expect to . see , British agriculture soon . fl-mrish . in full . perfection . Liquid cxcrementitious matter has become an article of trade in manufacturing districts ; why should not solid become the same ? Near every town undoubtedly there ought to . be a regular Domestic Guano manufactory carried on , or contributed to , by the public scavengers ; and surely , ere long , the collection of agents so important will claim the attention of men of capital and enterprise . Tubs with tight fitting lids and deep rims might bo used for this purpose , to collect tho soil in privies , be replaced , when
hlled , by others , and borne , in covered well contrived vans . toithe suburbs of our cites ; where , in open composting sheds , the domestic guano , or other mixtures hereafter described , might be fabricated . The ashes from coal fires , at the same time , might !> u separately tubbed , borne away , and afterwards used to-compound with and assist in their desiccation . The agency of steam , also , could well be applied . to dry such compounds , and of mechanical arrangements for . beatiugup the ingredients ; By such means . all offensive smell in privies ' would be unknown , land the removal of their contents not be offensive . While the elaboration of themwould belbund far less unpleasant than can bo imagined ; of this the . writer is fully convinced , from a close observation of the feelings of farm servants in its performance . In order that we may appreciate these , neglected things at their true value , let us attend to the Mowing important observations of an eminent philosopher . "If
we admit says Boiissingault , " the liquid and solid excrements of man amounts on an average to I * lb 3 daily ( ljlb urine ,, and | ib . " of , fceces ) , and that both taken together . contain 3 per cent of nitrogen , then in one . year they amount to 5 i 71 bs ., which contain lC . illbs . of nitrogen , a quantity sufficient to-yield the nitrogen of SOOlbs . of wheat , rye , oats , or of OOOlbs . of barley . " And again , "Why" saysDr . Buckland , " should we go so far as the shores , of . Africa when ¦ v ye have the remedy within ourselves—the essence of ale and beer , and the . quintessence ^ " beef aud bread and cheese ? These are the , best of all possible manures , : and . why ? Because they restore to the land that which the corn and the ox . have taken away ; because they restore things which the , atmospliere cannot restore ; that element can furnish charcoal and ammonia" to growing . plants , "but not that nutritious phosphate ; of beef , nor the gluten whicli enters into the commodities of which beer is composed . " . . .
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stimulated and excited . The circulation goes on with , wonderful rapidity . We live as it were , too fast . Fever supervenes ; and death follows : thus itu necessary to animal life , and yet we cannot live long 111 it in its pure statn . ¦ . ' ' ¦ . , » , . The constituents of plants , then , consist of cai ton and water ; and as water itself is formed ot hydrogen and osysen , thcreforeplants arc composed ot carbon and hydrogen , and oxygen ; but we have also another constituent . in gluten or . albumcn , whicli is composed of . another kind of air—viz ., nitrogen .- ;¦¦ - . ' If wei put . a small piecivof phosphorus in a saucer ,. " Kindle it , place a glass over it , aud ( ill the saucer with , water , the light- is . gradually extinguished , nitrogea 'gas is f irinod . By applying a taper , itis seen in what rcspeVtitdiHevsfrom tlie other gases . . In nitrogen it d » cs jiot burn at all . This ; : ivcs an idea of the resources a chemists 1 m in these siinplckimls of apparatus to cany on his investigations . A lighted taper serves him for anew sense makes him acquainted with pvopevtius whose existence he would not otherwise even have suspected . . ¦"
. You have now been informed that starch consists of carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and that gluten consists of ; nunigQii ; . These substances chomists call elementary or simple , because they cannot be separated into other substances . They , however , combine with one another . It will be desirable here . to explain the diiFurcnce . in chemical language between ' combination and mixture . Take quantities , of charcoal and saltpctrt , reduced to powder , and mix them together ; if you pour water upon them these substances are separated . The same take * place with sand and sawdust , ThesDiarc mixtures ,, not combinations . Substances avc saitVto combine when they form a new one , differing entirely in its properties from its originality . Garbou and charcoal , ; mixed with , oxygen ,. and 1 set on fire . . disapnear altogether .
and formsi a . new- kind of air called carbonic , acid . Put a . few . pieces of chalk , marble , or limestone , into a vessel . with . a . little , water , then pour a a little spirit ot' stilt ( muriatic acid ) over thorn . An , " effervescence will ensue , and an air will be produced which is ! invisible , but if a taper bo put into it , it goes out . This air is so heavy that it may be poured from one vessel to another , or on alighted candle , which it will instantly extinguish ... This is the gas which given .. off by all . fermented . liquors , such -as champagne , soda , water , « fec , It is formed also by the respirations of animals . Every , breath which , is exhaled gives out a portion of it in to the air ; and if we burn charcoal , .. wood , or . coal , wo -also produce carbonic acid . We thus find a small portion of it existing inthcattnospho . ro , as . will bo seen by the table shewing the composition of common air : — , COMPOSITION OF THE AIR . Before Breathing . After Breathing . ¦ Nitrogen . 79 . 1 G 79 . 16 Oxygen 20 . 80 . lt > . S 4 tol 2 Carbonic Acid 0 . Oi ¦ | 4 . 00 to 8
100 .. . ; .: 100 'I 3 y this table it will be seen that the air , before being inbaleu , consists of . nitrogen ,. oxygen , and carbonic acid . ¦ In 100 gallons of . common . air we find 79 nitrogen , 20 oxygen , and an almost unappreciable quantity of . carbonic , acid . A change always take 3 place-when air is exhaled . The nitrogen remains the same , the oxygen is reduced from 20 to 10 , whilst we have now 4 gallons of carbonic acid . All vegetable substances emit carbonic acid , in large quantities , when in course . of . decomposition .
Nitrogen , which is formed by burning phosphorus , may be chemically combined with oxygen or hydrogen . When with oxygen , it forms nitric acid or aqua-fortis , lu-om this process we observe a curious principle in chemical combination—viz ., that the two harmless gases—11 itrogen and hydrogen—form a corrosive and burning compound , such as aqua-fortis . This acid is lormed naturally in soils , manure heaps , &c , and ia of great importance to the farmer . It combines chemically with other substances , such as potash , soda , lime , &c . and is then called nitrate of potash , nitrate of soda , nitrate of lime &c . . . . .
; Nitrogen , combined with hydrogen , forms ammonia . Ibis gas , 1 have no doubt , is familiar to every one of you , and ,, if any who do not already know it , would smell this bottle of hartshorn , they would not soon torgct it . Ammonia is absorbed in large quantities by porous substances and fluids , often five hundred times its bulk . Ammonia combines with aeidg . with carbonic acid it forms carbonate of ammoniathe commonsmellingsalts oftheshops . This carbonate is of importance to farmers , and may be purchased at the gas works in the shape of ammoniacal liquor , Plants consist of . three parts—the roots , stems , branches and leaves . Like the branches in the air , the roots ramify in the soil , but instead of leaves they end in minute fibres . Cut through a tree you
will find an inner pith , then wood , and lastly , tlie bark , consisting of two parts—an outer and an inner . l"i wootl is porous , through which the sap is carried k-twcu- i the . roots and thcieaves . These capillaries iviteml >\) 1 I 10 end of the twig , and spread over tho : . o ; 't like vi . Mf . s . Tho ? nn proceeds from the roots iiroii-i '/ l- 'J ^ wcoil , 6 xtt'i :. U over tho leaves , and retunvs iuroitglKVi ? ui ' icv l . 'iirii . iiut whovodocs the sap come from ? I'Vont niC w'l Afc r-lu : cat ! of Lite root there r . rc a num ' Ocr of liiji-c . " " , wrMi ' Mfa-riu ;' : iu rffit-n ; :- / ends , tliat draw in largo quaiuil / us of ' wilU'V , and convey it into the wood . The leave * also ocrlbra - ?! i important function—in order to underswuid whitsd , we will refer to carbonic acid . The substance of a tree ' is composed of carbon and water , which carbon ,
is one of the staple articles of food which a plant requires . Now , this is actually taken in by the plant itself .. The leaves aro covered all over with little mouths ,, especially below , by which they absorb carbon , decomposing the oxygen it contains . The roots supply .- them pleutifuly with water , and the other staple articles of their food . You observe how small a quantity of carbonic acid is contained in the atmosphere—only one gallon ibr twenty-five hundred ot an-: and the reason why the air contains such a small quantity is , if it were impregnated with larger quantities , it would become hurtful to animal life . But , as the large quantities of this gas are required to furnish carbon for the support of vegetable life ; and as the layer of the air which surrounds a leaf only contains a very limited portion of it , we observe a beautiful plan pursued by nature , by which the air
anil leaves are Icept 111 continual motion b y the breeze ; thus fresh supplies of carbonic , acid aro continually brought within the reach- of the plant . Before the leaf is ; formed the young shoot performs the same function , so do , the shoots of grain , grasses , &c . Water forms one of the chief articles of food to plants , but it serves another function—it serves as a carrier by which food is supplicd to the plants . Tho water which the roots drink in is seaveely ever pure , but is impregnated with other substances , in solution ; coming into . contact with . the roots , it enters and carries wit-n it the substances it has dissolved in the soil . It thus carries carbonic acid , potash , and vanousother organic substances from the vegetable matter in the soil . There is a difference of opinion amongst chemists as to whether the greater portion ol the organic food of plants is derived from the soil or from the airbut I incline to tlie hitter opinion .
, This acids which contribute to the nourishment of plants are huniic and ulmic acids . . If we take a portion of vegetable soil , and put it into a bottle of hartshorn , and after shaking , allow it to stand over for a day or two , we will get a dark substance ; if tothis we add it quantity of muriatic acid ( spirit of salt ) , we will have immic acid , and if hartshorn be used , it will become ulmic acid . These acids are not easily solualiic in water ,- hut are dissolvable in Water containing ammonia , and exist in farm-yard liquids which run to waste . 1 have one observation to
make as to the source from whence the nitrogen consumed by the plants is derived . Plants get their substance from the soil , but principally from ammonia produced during the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter . It is also obtained partly from nitric acid . I beg the attention of agriculturist ^ particularly to this point , because nitrogen is of importance in making the plant produce a good crop .- ' It is by affording plants a siifiicicnt quantity of nitrogen , as well as other food in the soil , that we must form the basis of a crop .
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Wheat , you will observe , contains 15 per cent , of husk or woody fibre , 55 per cent , of starch , and from 10 to 15 percent , of gluten , There ave several- sub . stances very analogous to gluten—for instance , lhe white of an egg , which is called albumen . Though it is an animal production , it also exists in plants ; and the water when clean , in which you work the dough , contains a portion of it . You will see that ' a plant contains starch , with gum and sugar ; gluten , with albumen , and husk or woody fibre . Such are the constituents of plants . II" you take starch or sugar ; and put it into a retort , and apply heat to it , it will melt , and then blacken , whilst a vapour , or water , will come oft '; mid by continuing the process , you will get a considerable quantity of water , while what is left behind is charcoal . The same is the case with woody fibre , itis resolvable into two parts—charcoal and water .
The common form in which carbon presents itself is that of wood charcoal . It is light , ' porous , and black ; it is so light as to float on water , but plumbago and blacklead , and tho diamonds , arc dense in their composition . Lamp black and soot ave kinds of it . It possesses some properties to which I will draw your attention . 1 st , —If you light a piece , if it is in a pure state , it leaves no ashes behind . It disperses in the atmosphere , where it forms carbonic acid . If reduced to powder , and mixed with impure water , or spread on tainted meat , it absorbs the taint , " aiul makes both water and meat fresh aud pure . It is useful in
preserving game fresh that may be sent a distance . When in the soil , it absorbs certain substances which arc retained within its pores , and brought within reach 0 plants . 3 rd , —It will absorb immense quantities of air , or other gaseous vapours , and become much heavier . There are some kinds which will absorb greater quantities than others ; ' if put into ammonia it will absorb four or 500 times its own bulk . These properties have an important effect on tho growth of plants . Reduce charcoal to a fine powder , and damp it , and sprinkle it over seeds , it will cause them to spring rapidly . If drilled in with wheat , it will greatly increase the crop , as well as bring it forward more vapidlv ..
Water , the other component part of starch , woody fibre , Ac , when submitted to certain chemical operations , is separated into two gases—hydroiren and oxyecn . Their properties I shall very ' briefly show you . If oil of . vitrol ( sulphuric acid ) be mixed with water , and then poured upon iiiiw ov ivon Minns , it immediately boils , and a gas generates , whicli collected over water will be found to be hydrogen . It is invisible , and cannot be distinguished from common air by appearance or smell ; but chemists in bringing out its properties have a simple apparatus , which may bo called the chemist ' s sixth sense—viz ., a lighted taper . '
When this is . introduced intohydrogen gas a slight explosion takes place ( the result of a mixture of the hydrogen with the common atmospheric air ) , while the remaining hydrogen burns with a pale yellow ilaine , and the taper is extinguished . If a burner be placed in a vessel containing hydrogen gas , and light applied , Use gas will burn for some time . It has an intense heat . If a hollow vessel be held over it the jiyht will become dim , and water will be formed . This is tho watei' appearing again from which the hydrogen , by . burning , lias been separated . IJesitlrs these properties it possesses another : it is the lightest body with which we are acquainted , and is used for inllal-Inir balloons .
! Water also contains another substance , oxygen . It may be produced by pouring water upon chloride of ; posiash , and heating it ; or , if red oxide of mercury : be heated alone . It cannot , bu distinguished . from , air , being . destitute of colour , taste or smell ; but if a j lighted taper be plunged into it , the ilamc is increased 'hi size and brilliancy , and the taper burnsiaway . rai pidly . Going into a chamber -filled with hydrogen gas , we would immediately die ; but if it were filled with oxygen gas , all the functions of our ; nniu ' re would bo
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LECTURE ON AGRICULTURAL ' ¦ ¦ ¦ . , ¦ CHEMISTRY . - : Br Professor Johnston ! '' ¦ ¦ ' If you take a portion of anything you raise for crops-rof flour for example—and mix it withwaterso as to form it , and afterwards work it with water over a glass , letting the water fall into it , you will find the water become milky . Do this 59 long as the water which runs off the dough becomes milky , and afterwards you will find that the substance in your hand has undergone a change , having become more sticky , and fibrous . If . you allow the milky substance to settle , it will become clear , and there will remain at the bottom a white powder , which we call starch .
Now , the : substance in your hand is called gluten , and the clear liquid at the bottom will contain sugar and gum . Thus you can separate wheat flour into two parts , viz ., starch , the powder remaining in . the glass : and gluten , the substaiice ] in your hand . Tho same would . take place with any other vegetable matter ; for instance , if straw was cut into small pieces aiid pounded in a morter—with the difference , perhaps , thai whnt wild remain in the hand would consist wholly of iwdy ijfc'e , which 'liflmTrom Ofluten ; still tlieVb vi-oal ' . UM ' a ' ftUiVJisli-y itf'jj . ^' - " < •»'¦*'>• Yon ( . Iins'fiml that- there arc Hirei- tiaVseiTo ?¦ « 4 » t ; <[! - ! e obtainedstarch , gluten , and wood . v ( i ' orc . liiv i"a . V . ' ' - ' ^ ' l- ' rofessor then referred to a Table static . Ihc fc-fiu'W Composition of the usually'Cultivated Crops .
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Mahomf . iun' 1 ' iusimis . —A letter from Algiers contains the following : — ' ! I have just witnessed a ceremony , very curious to European eyes—the return to their families of the caravan of pilm-ims to Mecca , lheir approach had been announced " on the previous day , and the whole Arab population went out to meet them , some on horseback , others on foot , with their wives ami children . Some of them carried Hags of various colours , and many or" them kept firing off their guns , without which there can be no fete with this singular people . I joined the cortege , and , after : proceeding ibr some time in the midst of this pici turesqne group , 1 perceived the looked-for travellers ' I approaching . The whole party , with whom T was , I tomniouced singing , or rather shouting , iu chorusi' 0 , pilgrim ? , in the House of God have you seen the I rroimet of the Most High V ' We have seen him ,
and we left him at Mecca ; he there prays , fasts , pcri forms Ins ablutions , and reads the holy books , ' was j the reply _ After which the party hastened to ' salute i "' '" f tilcil" garments , and to'ofler them hos-; pitahty . Happy was he who could entertain them , ! ill order to draw down upon his tent the blessing of : the All Powerful . Each of the pilgrims had brought I from Mecca small chaplets , which they distributed to their relations and fi-ieuds , and also phials Silled with the water of . Birzemzcm , a fountain in the holy house . 11113 water is kept to sprinkle over tho bodies ot the dead . The Arabs consider the journey to bo attended with jmidi danaer , as the road is in . tested wuh ypWicrs , and the expedition occupies from twelve to fifteen months , during which lime they have innumerable hardships to undergo , tho endurance of which they , however , hope will be the means 0 . tlieir . obtainins pardon for their sins . "
In the decline orTiib the most cftiracious occasional medicine , for , giving tone ami strength to the stomach and acth-g at the same time as a gentle and healthful apericnr , is " Framptou ' s ViH of Health "a family res torative which has conferred the most essential benefits upon those who have fortunatcl- had rccouise to its hcaUlM-cstorin aid ; enabling tW to "So- ™ ^ ell-known line from' Shale " Though 1 look old , yet I am strong aiid lusty . "
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Citation
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Aug. 9, 1845, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1327/page/7/
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