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" And I will war , at least in words , ( And—should my chance so happen—desds ) , "With all who war with Thought 1 " "I think I hear a little bird , who sings The people by and by will be the stronger . "—Biros .
1 TALI , AUSTRIA , AND THE POPE . * so . t . Injustice to Mr . Mazzixi , and the glorious cause of wMch he is the advocate and champion , we feel called upon to give entire the following sketch of the rise and struggles of the national party of Italy : — " We are a people of from onc-aud-twenty to t « o-ana twenty millions of men , known from time immemorial bj the same name , as the people of Italy ; enclosed by nataxtd limits the clearest ever marked out by the Deitythe sea and the highest mountains in Europe ; speaking the samelanguage , modified by dialects varying from each other less than do the Scotch and the English ; having
the same creeds , the same manners , the same habits , with modifications not greater than those which in France , the most homogeneous country on tlie earth , distinguish the Basque xace from the Breton ; proud of the noblest tradition iu polities , saenee , and art , that adorns European history ; having twice given to humanity a tie , a watchlford of unity—once , in the Rome of the Emperors , again , ere they had betrayed their mission , in the Rome of the Popes ; gifted with active , ready , and brilliant faculties , is not denied even by our calumniators ; rich in every source of material well-being that , fraternally and liberally worked , could inake ourselves happy , and open to aster nations the brightest prospect in the world .
We have no flag , no political name , no rank among European nations . We have no common centre , no common pact , no common market . We are dismembered into eight states—Lomhardy , Parma , Tuscany , Modena , lucea , the Popcdom , Piedmont , the Kingdom of Naplesall independent one of another , without alliance , without onity of aim , without organised connection between them . Sight lines of custom-houses , without counting the impediments appertaining to the internal administration of each state , sever our material interests , oppose our ad * vancemunt , and forbid us large manufactures , large commercial activity , and all those encouragements to our capabilities that a centre of impulse would afford . Prohibitions or enormous duties check the import and export of articles of the first necessity in eaeli state ofltalv . Territorial and industrial products abound in one
wo-Tince that are deficient in another ; and we may not freely sell the superfluities or exchange among ourselves the necessities . Eight different systems of currency , of weights and measures , of civil , commercial , and penal legislation , of administrative organisation , and of police restriction , divide us , and render us as much as possible Strangers to each other . And all these states among ¦ Which we ar-- partitioned are ruled b y despotic governments , in whose working the country lias no agency whatever . There exists not in any of these states , either liberty of the press , or of united action , or of speech , or Of collective petition , or of the introduction of foreign Iwofas , or of education , or of anjthing . One of these Mates , compr fins nearly a fourth of the Italian population , belong ? 'tothe foreigner—to Austria ; the others , some from family ties , some from a conscious feebleness ' tamely submit to her influence .
From this contrast between the actual condition and the aspirations of the country was produced the National party ; to which , Sir , I have thehouour to belong . The National party dates a long time back in Italy . It dates from Rome—from that law of the Empire that admitted every Italian to the rights of citizenship in the capital of the known world . The work of assimilation which then instinctively began , was interrupted or rather complicated by a new task , by tile invasion of theSorthern hordes . It was necessary to assimilate to ourselves b y degrees these foreign elements , before resuming the work of internal homogencization . Two or three centuries sufficed for this business of preparation : and when our Communes were established , the work was resumed . The national tendencies , hitherto pursued unconsciously , took
a condensed form and existence in the conception of our great men of thought or action . From the Consul Crescenzio to Julius the Second , or to our agitators of the sixteenth century—from Dante to Machiavel—you will not find one , Sir , who did not adore the oneness of this nation , this Italy that we adore , and for which the sons of an Austrian admiral died last year . Then , thanks to Charles the Fifth and Clement the Seventh , thanks to the Pope and the Empire , slavery fell upon us—a common slavery , that crumbled all our old hostilities and bent our sestive heads under one yoke . When , after nearly three centuries of this common infliction , the French Revolution burst on Europe , the National party in Italy wasfound quite formed , and ready to appear on the political arena . As if to afford a practical proof that we were ripe for
union , Napoleon ran a line across Italy , placed Ancnna and Venice , Bologna and Milan , nndcr the same government , and founded the Kingdom of Italy . The essay succeeded . The intellectual rise , the rapid increase of maierial prosperity , the burst of fraternization , that were manifested in all those very provinces that short-sighted politicians , on the faith of a few popular phrases and petty jealousies , would a few days hefure have declared ready to cut each other ' s throats , are facts , especially in the period fromlSOS to 1 S 13 , irrevocably committed to history . Xotnitlistantling our dependence on the French Empire , under political despotism and despite war , the feeling of nationality , specially incorporated in our brave army , elevated our souls , picturing in tlse distance the oneness of Italy , the object of all our efforts . The stren"th oi
the National party w . sso entirely recognised , that when the time came for the 6 / 1 of Xapoleon , it was in the name of this party that the European governments sought to arouse us against the domination of France . As far back as lSW , Austria spoke to us by his Imperial Highness the Archduke John , of glory , of liberty , of independence , aud of a Constitution based on the immntaUc nature of things ! . Four years later , General Nugent promised as an independent Kingdom of Italy J . And in the following year , yoar England , Sir , proclaimed by the mouth of Bentinck the liberty and independence of the Italian people !! . Youinscribed these words { LibcrtacTmk } Xndcn : aJtalka ) on thestandards of the Legion , itself also called Italka , that
was organized in Sicily to he employed in Tuscany : you everywhere disseminated by the officers of this Legion copies of the Sicilian Constitution —of that Constitution , by the by , which was given to Sicily when that island was important as a military position 5 , and was disgracefully abandoned , your purpose once answered , in spite of promises in which the honour of the country n-as involved . ? Napoleon fallen , all tliese promises were forgotten and broken . The meaning they conveyed was more permanent , and was confirmed , even diplomatically , by the National party . The hopes of the army and the National Guard were evidenced in addresses . A deputation of commerce had an interview at Genoa with Lord William
JBentinck . Active efforts were made about Prince aiettcnricli and the Emperor of Austria . Interviews took place at Paris between the deputies of the Kingdom of Italy and the English Plenipotentiaries , the Earl of Aberdeen and Lord Castlereagh . We then had faith in diplomacy , and especially in England . All was unavailing . Your cuuntry , said the Emperor Francis to the Italian deputies , is mine by right of conquest . And three months after lord Castlcreagh ' s assurances that the Austrian Government would be altogether paternal , Italian officers and civilians of every rank , in considerable numbers , and under pretext of a conspiracy against the Austrians —at a time when they had not heen fleclarc-d masters "b y the Congress—were arrested at
31 ilan and elsewhere , and thrown into military prisons , where all communication and every means of defence were withheld . These arrests took place at Milan almost regularly evtry Saturday nightfrom November , 18 H , to the end of January , 1 S 15 . After several months of secret investigation , the prisoners were Tefusedthe choice of advocates , aud their counsel were nominated Vy the Ausirians . Tried in the citadel of Mantua by a sort of half civil , half military , but wholly inquisitorial court , some were sentenced to three years' imprisonment , others condemned for life to the fortresses of Hungary . In i . 'iedmont , in the States of the Pope , in Sicily , throughout Italy , one stroke of the pen erased all our liberties , all ourrefvrms , all our hopes . The old regime reappeared , penritious as before , but surcharged with vengeance .
From the frauds of the Congress of Vienna spranc ilic insurrections of 1820 , 1821 , aud 1831 . The insurrection of 1 S 20 ( July ) took place in the Sngdom of Xayles , embvaeiug the whole of it . The absolute government was everywhere overturned , without resistance , without bloodshed . The King yielded to the desire of the people and the army , and proclaimed on the Cth— -for this was all done in six days—constitutional forms , demanded , as expressed in his edict , by the general win . The insurrection ofltSl ( March ) had Piedmont and Hsuria for its theatre . Almost the entire nobilitv took
part in this movement , the initiative being with the army . The National party had even gained over the Prince of Carigiiano , hrfr to the Crown . It matters little that this Prince , unequal to his task , betrayed his party from fear , = » ndji ,. w rei gns an absolute sovereign in Piedmont : his acressiun to the combination does not the less prove how w ? hthfc National party had pushed their proselytisin . i ins ninveaient , commenced on the 10 th , was complete on f » c 13 th , a bloodless victory . The King , Victor Emanuel , mtmi hv oaths to Austria , abdicated , appoiutiug a n * g « nt ; who , on the 14 th , took the oath to the constitutional systm l . reclaimed .
The insurrection of 1831 ( February ) comprised in its action the Diu-hy of Parma , the Duchy of Modena , and the -tatts of the Pone . It travelled ftoin one city to another asitwu-, ; - ^ wail : the news of a rising effected in one In fl W * saSki ( : nt *<> determine that next on the line . ^ aa v d - * ^ ' * * " ** ^ ^ ^ temporal power abolished wa-h * f '" " tVfcr ^ "SH so thoroughly conscious ntu . 1-. i ll ? ™ 1 > Meilcc » cf bringiug into play his spitJM ^ wa « H tlmt these insurreetionsagainst the iiuan despotisms , always successful , were neverthcifcs always put down ? ¦ " ? Austria—hy the immediate and unexpected inter'emiun vf Austrian armies .
, Snare with many of my countrymen the opinion , that If acfiug } n a ,-ertain course aud in a certain mode , an taliwi insurrection might successfully brave Austrian -, : tTV « nti < iu , I think that serious faults of management * fc-C committed by our leaders ; and that no one of them
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hitherto has been equal ta those elements of action that we possess . But this opinion right or wrong , has nothing to do with my present argument . My present argu . ment , whfchjon , sir , cannot refute , based as it is on unassailable historical facts , is simply this—" That the National party in Italy comprehends the immense majority of my fellow-citizeng ; that it has been , and would be now more than ever , master at home , were it not for the immediate armed iuterventiun uf a foreign power . Sir , ours is the onl y country in Europe that is deprived , thanks to the Diplomacy you personally so well represent , of the right of mauaging its own business in its own way ; the only country in Europe that cannot ask for a common life , a common bond , or even a mere partial amelioration of its laws , without a foreign army pouring into it , and contesting b y brutal force its right to progression ; the wily country iu Europe in which an admitted unanimity of opinion does not constitute acknowledged right .
Sir , I say that in this there is great injustice—a great crime chargeable on European society ; and that it is the dnty of every Italian to protest by word aud deed , through life and through death , against this great injustice . So I have done ; so I shall do . You may open my correspondence , or calumniate my life ; y « u mav disgrace the land that grants me hospitality b y reviving the Alien Bill : but I doubt strongl y , sir , whether you will ever make me deviate one breadth from the course which my duties as a man and an Italian long since marked out , whose consciousness accompanies me wherever I go aud which will be in no wise affected by the degree of latitude ana longitude under which I may find myself .
m Before we proceed further with the selections we intend to give from Mr . Mazzim ' s valuable work we must again recommend to our readers that they purchase it for themselves . Although we have Mr . Mazzini ' s sanction to reprint in our columns as much of his work as we please , still it would be very unjust were we to take the cream of his labours without doing all in our power to extend the sale of the work , that thereby Mr . Mazzixi may be , atleast , reimbursed the outlay for printing , &c . Men of wealth professing liberal principles , if really sincere , will purchase copies of Air . Mazzim ' s work for distribution , that thereby the truth of Ital y and her wrongs may be made known to the Britis people . But withuut
looking to professid liberals of the golden order to do this work of circulating Mr . Mazzi . m ' s production , it behoves the veal liberals , the patriots for Britain , for Italy , for Europe , and for the world—the intelligent and liberty-loving of . the working class—the proletarians of the State—the class we specially address—it behoves them to see that Mr . Mazzixi is no loser by his generous appeal to England on behalf of his noble country . This work might have had a large sale , but for the infamous silence of the press . The . pretended liberal journals , daily and weekly , have , almost universally , done their best to stifle Mr . Mazzlm ' sappeal bj the " silent system . " Why is the Weekly Ditpatclt silent ?
To the working mon we appeal to give them aid in extending the circulation of Air . Maszixi ' s " Italy , Austria , and the Pope . " Iu price k , we believe , half-a-crown , a sum beyond the means of many hundreds who read this paper ; but what one cannot do , three or four may accomplish without any sacrifice . Atleast , all Chartist Associations , and liberal councils and committees , shouid procure copies of the work for the instruction of their members .
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* " Italy , Austria , and the Pope . A letter addressed to Sir James Graham , Bart . JiyJusephMazzini . " London : u . Albanesi , 8 , Queen-street , Golden-square : Cleave , Shoe-lane ; Hetherington , Holy well-street ; Watson , Paui's-alley ; and Strange . Pateruoster-row . ilmitoddV Arciduca Giovanni alfopola < V Italia , 1809 . t Proclamation of the lutli December , 1813 . II Jfawi / Vsto of the 14 th March , as above . § Lurd Castlereagh ( Marquis of Londonderry ) in the House of Commons , 21 st June , 1821 . 5 Lord William Bentiuck-saine debate . See also the noble and generous sentiments uttered on that occasion by Sir James Mackintosh .
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FIELD-GARDEN .-OPERATIONS . For the Week commencing Monday , Aug . 2 M , 1 S 4 S . ( Extracted from a Dunyof Actual Operations on five smalliannson the estates of the late Mrs . D . Gilbert near hastbourne , in Sussex ; and on several model larms on the estates of the Earl of Dartmouth at Slatthwaite , in Yorkshire , published by Mr . -A ' owelL of Faruley Tyas , near lluddersueld , in order to guide other possessors of field gardens , by showin- them what labours ought to be undertaken on tkeir own lands , 'lhe farms selected as models are—First iwo school farms at Willinttdon and Eastdean . of
uve acreseach , conducted by G . Cruttenden and John Hams . Second . Two private farms , of five or six acres : one worked by Jesse Piper , the other by John Dumbrcll—the former at Eastdean , the latter at Jevington—all of them within a few miles of Eastbourne . Third . An industrial school farm at Slaithwaite . Fourtli . Several private model farms near the 3 ameplace . Theconsecutiveoperations intliesereporls will enable the curious reader to compare the climate » nd agricultural value of the south with the north of England . The Diary is aided by " Notes and Observations " from the pen of Mr . A ' owell , calculated for the time and season , which we subjoin .
" mth health of body , innocence of mind , aud habits of industry , a poor man's child ought to have nothing to be afraid of ; nor his father or mother anything to be afraid of for him . " —Br . PaUy . Note . —The scliool farms are cultivated ly loys , who in return for tliree /« wrs * teaching in tlie morning , give tlaree hours of tlieir labour in t / tc afternoon for tlie waiter ' s benefit , ivhich renders tlie schools self-8 CPP 0 MIXG . H e believe dial at Famly Tyas sixteo ' entltt of the produce of the school farm will be assigned toihe buys , and one-scvaitlt , to the master , ivho will receive tlie usual school fees , help tlie bovs to cultivate tlieir land , and teach tlicm , in addition to reading , writing , < tc ., to cojiuert tlieir produce into bacon , by attending to pig-keeping , which at Christmas may be divided , after paying rent and levy , amongst t ) icm in proportion to their services , and bemadethusindirectly to reach their parents in a way Vie \ mostgrateful to tlieirfeelings . ]
SUSSEX . HosDAX—WiUingdon School . Boys carrying peas . Eastdean School . Boys reaping oats , and beans , and tares . 1 'iper . Trussing straw . Bumbrell . Heaping , a wet day . Toesdat— tilllingdon School . Half day wet , boys digging early potatoes , and in the school-room . Eastdean School . Boys binding sheaves , thrashing barley , digging potatoes . Piper . Trussing straw DumbrelL Mewling four rods ( 121 square yards ) with 100 gallons of liquid , turuiug barley and oats . Wednesday—Willingdon School . Boys mowing barley . Eastdean School . Boys emptying the portable pails , and tank . Piper . Trussing straw , auu digging pea ground . . LutnLrcll . Turning peas and oats , reaping wheat , carrying peas and oats . Thursday— Willingdon School . Boys tying up barley
sheaves , hastdean School . Boys thrashing barley , cleaning it , and reaping wheat . Piper . Digging pea ground , and sowing white turnips on the same . DumbrelL Binding oats . Friday— Willingdon School . Boys thrashing , with machine , the allotment tenants' wheat . Eastdean School . Boys cleaning tlie pigstyes , and emptying the pig-pound tank . Fiper . Cleaning the pigstye , and mending lucerne with liquid . Vumbrell . Binding up , and carrying oats . Sixmaux—Willingdon School . Boys doing same as yesterday . Handeaa School . Boys emptying portable pails or privy tubs , and clearing the ground where the turnips grew . 1 'iper . Digging up potatoes , and housing straw . DumbrelL Carrying oats , raking the stubble .
COW-FEED 1 SC . Willingdon School . Cows living on clover and white turnips . Dumbrcll . One cow grazed in the day , and fed morn and even in the stall with mangel wurzel leaves . One cow and heifer fed on lOllbs . of tares per day , till Thursday , the reniaiuder of the week entirely on clover . Piper ' s cows still feeding on lucerne .
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manifest with regard to animals for if they breathe pertectly _ dry air , they soon begin to feel its extreme S * We know thai if a quantity of dTv an is thrown into a room , the respiration ( or breatliing ) becomes oppressed , because it produces a great ft » i body l , moistlire : and ™ bre it « fe't in the lungs and on the skin . With regard to vegetables , the effect of dry air on them is to cause them to droop , as may be seen during the prevalence of a dry easterly wind . There is tlie same call upon the leaves of vegetables for moisture , and the consequence is , they shrivel up ; this is called " a blight . " lnerc are various means of ascertaining verv nnm-lv
the quantity ; ot moisture in the air ; butDaniell ' s hygrometer is the only instrument by which wo can accurately determine tlie actual quantity of water existing , at any given time , in a given bulk oi' air . 12 . Now , water is a compound of hydrogen ami oxygen : and , as it has already been noticed ( par . 0 how important a feature it is in the constitution ot organic bodies , it will be necessary to glance at its composition , as well as at some of its properties . Tlie composition of water lias been the subject lately of a great number of accurate experiments . Tlie result is , ¦ that water consists of 1 part by weight ot . teATOBwi , and 8 of oxygen ; or , as nearly as possibly ,
Oxygen 88-9 Hydrogen ............ \} - \ _ It may be necessary here to explain , that , in speaking ot the elementary constituents of organic bodies , * " ! eanin j ? sometimes attached to the term water different trom the ordinary one-that is , where it is intended to refer to the fact that these constituents contain oxygen and hydrogen in the same relative proportion as in water , rattier than to imply that the water is ready , formed in them : thus , sugar mav be called a compound of carbon and water ; by which is meant , that charcoal , added to a certain quantity each ot oxygen and hydrogen in the same relative proportion as in water , constitute sugar . Water ; lonns a constituent part of organic matter , and isessential to . the condition of life . A piece of meat
may be made perfectly dry , or we may think we can squeeze it perfectly dry , but by rubbing it in a dry towel , we find it still retains water in a very peculiar state : in fact , what we call dry meat contains 75 per cent , of water ; and if wo dry it in a high temperature , it loses to that amount . When we . alk of eat . ng a pound of beef , therefore , we only eat a quarte ot a pound , all the rest is water . In its fluid slate , water is required to enable organised bodies to transnut through tlieir vascular structure those substances which are necessary to tlieir sustenance , and thus we see , by the sap of plants , a number of substances are earned through the texture of the plant to nourish and tuild it up . Plants seem to be capable of taking up a certain quantity of water , and of combining it in their texture with other substances , especially carbon but this matter will be discussed more at length hereafter .
13 . The next subject that comes before us in this brief outline of the components of the atmosphere , is carbonic acid . Although present as a constituent of the atmosphere—and it is a very important constituent—and although a large quantity passes through the medium of the air into the vessels ot plants , and is absorbed by them . —very little is found at any onetime in the atmosphere . There is every reason to suppose that the carbon we find in the form of coal or carbonate of lime ( or limestone ) , has originally been of organic ' origin ; that the thousands of tons of coal we are consuming every year is the product oi the destruction of the vegetable world of former days , lhe limestone rocks—those great accumulations ot carbonic acid awl lime—appear also to have derived
their carbon from the organic creation . And here some very curious points arise as to the wonderful provision made as it were for the building up of organic and vital tpxtures from the carbon of past ages . We are , in fact , carrying . way enormous quantities of carbon , in ' the shape of coal , from the bowels of the earth , and burning it into carbonic acid . London alone thus sends into the atmosphere upwards of seven million tons of carbonic acid annually . But this carbonic acid , instead of being left in the atmosphere , is absorbed by the vegetable creation , itseavbon is used to build up the woody fabric of the trees of the forest , and to form a part of all plants ; while its oxygen , or the greater part of it , is again restored to the atmosphere , lvom which , for atime it had been
borrowed . Animals—at least the graminivorous tribes—live upon these vegetables , and in their various functions , but especially in respiration , they convert the carbon into carbonic acid , and send it back to the air again , to be absorbed and decomposed by plants , as before . Thus we see , that while by animals a process is carried on , which is equivalent to combustion—that is , they convert carbon into carbonic acid , and hydrogen into water—vegetables arc , on the other hand , performing the opposite process ; and if we ' contemplate , even only superficially , these wonderful relationships and mutual dependencies of the three kingdoms of nature—of animals , vegetables , and the atmosphere—we cannot but be struck with the importance of tlieis respective functionsand oi
, the wonderful manner in which they , as it were , provide for each other's existence . —Attention will next be directed to carbon , and such of its combinations a 6 belong to organic chemistry . U . It will be necessary to return for a little to carbonic acid , which lms already been adverted to as one of the constant , but variable ingredients in the atmosphere , and one of which the average quantity contained in the air amounts to about one part m 1000 . It is a heavy gas , and extinguishes Haiue . It is soluble in ' water , which wilt take up , at a common temperature , about its own volume of it . It is familiarly known as giving an effervescing quality to many mineral waters . 15 . Carbonic acid may be very easily ' detected bv
means oi lime-water , which it renders milky . If lime-water be merely exposed to the air , it becomes milky ; and if a bottle of it be left without a stopper , it will acquire , on the surface , a film of carbonate of lime . Pure lime is soluble in water , but water takes up only the 700 th part . Carbonate of lime , however , is quite insoluble in pure water , —and hence it is , that when carbonic acid is brought into contact with lime-water , carbonate of lime falls down ; and . if the carbonate of lime be collected , ami weighed , the quantity of carbonic acid contained can be determined ; There is , however , much difficulty m doing this ; the quantity of carbonate of lime being so small , it is not so easy to collect , dry , and weigh it : so that this method cannot always Ue clepeutlcd on
in quantitative proceedings , —though , as a quantitative test—that is , as a ready and accurate test of the presence of carbonic acid—lime water is invaluable , 'lhe following experiment will show how carbonic acid may be produced , and its quantity determined . Into a glass globe put some pure oxygen gas , and also a little lime-water ; the lime-water will be perfectly pellucid , which shows that there is no trace of carbonic acid in it . Now , if charcoal , or plumbago , ( commonly called black lead , ) or the diamond , or any carbonaceous body—and , therefore , any vegetable or animal substance—be burned in the globe , carbonic acid will be produced . "If a piece of perfectly pure charcoal bo chosen for the experiment , it lnay be heated by means of a blow-pipe , and then introduced into the atmosphere of oxygen . It will there immediately burn with great brilliancy , and completely disappear , as if dissolved . It cannot be said to be
destroyed , nor will it have escaped from the globe . It will , in fact , be dissolved in the oxygen , and have formed an invisible aeriform or gaseous compoundcarbonic acid . Now it will be found , that in this combustion oi ennvcoal in oxygen , by which carbonic acid is produced , the weight ofthe charcoal consumed , and that ot the oxygen in which it is burned , and which enters into chemical combination with it , will be in the same proportion to each other almost precisely as six is to sixteen ; so that , assuming the atomic weight , or combining equivalent , of carbon or charcoal to be equal to six , and that of oxygen equal to eight , it may be ' said that carbonic acid consists oi—Equivalent Atom . weight . Percent . Carbon 1 c 27 27 Oxygen 2 ' 1 G w ' 73
22 100 1 ( 5 . Though the exposure of clear lime water to carbonic acid produces a milky appearance , ami carbonate ot lime is precipitated , yet if carbonic acid be added in excess , the precipitates will be re-dissolved , so that the liquor will again become perfectly dear , although it holds the carbonate of lime in solution , lliei-o is no doubt that lime often finds its way into water containing carbonic acid , which is in iaet , some lines saturated with lime in proportion to the quantity ot carbonic acid it contains tfurthoJ desen-es attention , that water contain ng carbon c acid is . sour , and reddens vegetable blues It has bowevcr , only a very slightly sour taste ' eurijnuiaeiif held in in
, # ; J ^ C . solution water , pcrtorms a . very important part with rcard to the Ed 1 s luff - l > lm ? > "taJSSricairh liciu in solution in water , its oxvgen is converted SS ' S Ca !' b T " ^ ^ ¦ WntS of the hbhes and animals - existing in the water , and the carbonic acid so produced is decomposed by the vegetable growing m tlvc vatev , cbarcohl is taken up and oxygen given oft ' . Hence the reason why Wcifit keep fish or any cngth of time in tho ovnamenh basin , or in any piece of water where there JJnot vegetables growing . Gold fish may be kept in water exposed to the air / but , although the ah In £ access to it we arc obliged frequently to h gV 1 water , lor it soon becomes so lav cliav « ed with fT borne acid as to be unfit forthoroni ™ S « of /» £ i " 0
Sr ifZeVf ^ i ^ — ^ vces of Sble ! th 0 fidI -., "' ?! numbei > ot" afl » atic t £ bohilotl S . SOOn ^ > iu co » s < - 'qticnce of c thro v off , 1 , * ? ¥ ? ^ carbonic acid which It a" vimc& , W " timatcly Poisons them , to in Sic ! KS ' ¦ t ! ! , * hewll 0 lc ™ luoot ' v ° Seta-E m 11 g , 1 , S i u th ? cxt ™ nlinary power in taking up tlie charcoal , and settin" the o \ v 4 n free li ^ 'SSfe ^ K theinfluence oi . solar light . This apparently casv decomposition oi carbonic acid , by the joint operations of the green pavt of vegetablesland of light , is a v ! ry
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extraordinary circumstance , for the affinity of carbon for oxygen is such , that the resolution of carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen , by common chemical means , is a matter of great difficulty , and can only be effected by substances possessed of a more powerful affinity for oxygen than that which carbon has . The consequence is , that almost all burning bodies are extinguished when " immersed in carbonic ncid . There are , however , a few—and only a very few—of the metals which , in consequence of their intense affinity lor oxygen , will decompose , and consequently burn m , carbonic acid . Thus , if a piece of the metal potassium , heated in the air till it begins'to ' burn , be introduced into ajar of carbonic acid , the combustion will continue at the expense of the oxygen of that gas , and its carbon will be thrown down . ' In many cases ! when we decompose carbonic acid , instead of taking away the whole of the oxygen , we take away only half of it , and when we obtain a gaseous body , which , of course , contains only half the nuantitV ' of oxvsen
winch exists in carbonic acid . Carbonic acid has already been stated to consist of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen ; but if we abstract one of the atoms of oxygen , we obtain carbonic oxide , which consists of— Equivalent Atom . weight . For cent . Carbon ] o 42 , 0 Oxygen 1 8 57 , 1 14 100 ( Tobe continued ) .
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BANKRUPTS . { From Friday ' s Gazelle , - -1 ujritst 15 , 1845 J Joseph Lazarus , Marylebonc-Iitne , clothes-dealer—\ Vil . Ham Parsons , Wood-street , Lambeth , corn-dealcr—Dnv ' ul Davies , Jevmyn-stveet , St . James ' s , dealer in regimental and court dresses—John Tcm \> lo Taylor , aniTTtiamas P : uitry Wntkinson , York-terrace , Kegeut ' s-park , and Watling-street , plumbevs—GoorgD Frederick Kcrsclincr . Hoi . loway , victualler—John Marsh , Hvcwood , Staffordshire grocer—John fiadogan , jun ., Brecon , hat-warchousemai —Jacob Richard Owen , Manchester , stock-broker .
BANKRUPTS . ( From the Gazette of Tuesday , • IhjhsC 10 . _^ Francis Jackson , Mnrylehone-strcet , Golden-square , victualler—Richard White , Portsmouth , suvgeou nnd apothecary—James Chase Powell , Gliiswvll-strcet , l'ins . bury , apothecary—Mark JIarkwiek ,. Harper-streot , Ited lion-square , builder—Daniel Dames , Liverpool , paperstniner—Hugh Mnllinson , Alinomlbury , Yorkshire , maim , facturer of fancy worsted and cotton goods .
DECLARATIONS OF DIVIDENDS . J . A . Forrest , Liverpool , glass-merchant , first dividend of 10 s in the pound , any Monday after tlie Jth of October next , at the olficc of Mr . Bird , Liverpool . T . Atkinson , Gloucester , chemist , second dividend of Id in the pound , the last three Saturdays in October next , at the office of Mr . Groom , Abcliurch-lnnc , City , W . II . Williamson , Dowgnto-hill , tobacconist , first ( HviilDna of is lOd in the pound , the three last Saturdays in October next , at the office of Mr . Groom , Abcburchlanc , City , . T . B . Golborue and A . A . Dobbs , Liverpool , wine-merchants , third dividend of 6 d in the pound , any Wednesday after the 5 th of October next , at the office of Mr . FoUctt , Liverpool . J . Wilkinson , Bvymbo , Denbighshire , ironmaster , third dividend of CJd in the pound , any Monday after the 4 th of October next , at the ofliee of Mr . Uird , Liverpool .
dividends . Sept . 20 , C . Tinunis , Stone , Staffordshire , iliiit-grinder—Sept . 12 , T . Southern , Gloucester , grocer—Sept , 12 , W . S . Rental ) , Newton Abbott , Devonshire , bunker—Sept . 10 , 1 . Solly , St . Mary-Axe , City , merchant . Certificates to ho granted , unless cause be shown to the contrary on the day of meetinjr . Sept . 12 , W . C . Thornton , Clcukhenton , Yorkshira . niachine-makcv—Sept . 9 , W . Hilditeh , l ' nchiven , Flintshire , grocer—Sept . 11 , J . Crabtrec and W . Hurnley , Tunstead , Lancashire , woollen-manufacturers—Sept . !) , J . Davis , Bristol , . chemist—Sept . !) , J . de J . l'miente , liury-street , St . Mary-Axe , merchant—Sept . 9 , G . Kstall , Holy wellstreet , plasterer—Sept . 9 , II . Nichols , Colefurd , Gloucestershire , auctioneer—Sept . 9 , J . llarbottlc , Amble , Northumberland , grocev—Sept . 9 , T . B . Hall , CoggusliaU , Essex , grocer—Sept . 0 , V . A . De "Wilde , Wells-street , Oxfordstreet , cabinet-ironmonger—Sept . 9 , G . C . Burns , Devizes , Wiltshire , upholsterer—Sept . 9 , J . Currier and L , E , Scig . nette , Mincing-lane , merchants—Sept . 9 , W . Dyers , Skin , ncr-strect , City , woollcn-warchouscman .
PARTNEnSIIirs DISSOLVED . T . Jennings and J . Ford , Laurence-lane , City , common carriers—N . Denton , C . Itedlern , and J . Ilowartli , Gartvu , Lancashire , hat-manufacturers-H . W ., F . G ., and W . M . Currington , Dcvonpovt , newspaper proprietors ; ns far as regards W . M . Currington—T . Maish and W . M . Symons , New Bridge-street , Vauxhali , printers—W . F . Chapman and S . Collis , coach-builders—J . Thompson and S . Marshall , jun ., Manchester , commission-agents—M . and II . Nixon , Hugby , Warwickshire , hat . manufncturers — R . Brcveton and J . Kobinson , Liverpool , woollen-drapers—W , II . Hirst and J . Brooke , Leeds , stockbrokers—T . R .
Jenks and J . Mapp , Liverpool , tea-dealers—S . Cartwright and T . Lowe , Manchester , silk-manufacturers—B . Wainman and B . Bmlts , Leeds , cloth-inerclinnts—J . and T . D . Bottomley and T . Evans , Manchester , woollcn-mauufacturers-A . nnd It . Halliley and J . Donaldson , Wigton , Cumberland , calico-printers-, as fav as vegavrts i . Donaldson—C . and 1 ' . G . Turner , Preston , Lancashire , coalmerchants-G . Cooltson and G , Singleton , Poulton-in-the-Fylde , Lancashire , joiners—J Abbott and T . II . Bowman Liverpool , sharcbroUers-R . Kent , J . Adams , and J . Kent Burslem , potters ; as far as regards J . Adams-J . Skilli . corn , D . I'iukess , and J . W . Bailey , Liverpool , painters .
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London- Smitiipield Cattle Market , Moxday , August 18 . —The imports of foreign stock for our market since this day sc ' nniglit have been again extensive , they having amounted to 230 oxen and cows from Holland , 30 ditto from Germany , and 20 from . Spain . The receipts of sheep have beon 3100 , of calves 50 head , all from Rotterdam . At Hull there have bucn received abont 110 beasts and 50 sheep In to-day ' s market we had on offer nearly 100 beasts from Rotterdam , 20 ditto from Germany , " 8 ditto from Spain , together with 1 G 0 sheep . The general quality of this stock was about a full average—indeed there were some excellent beasts on show . The ' demand or them , however , was inactive , ami the quotations had a downward tendency , arising from the lar <* c increase in the arrivals from our own districts .
trom Norfolk , Suffolk , as well as the northern and nudlaiK counties , the bullock droves fresh up this morning were , ' comparativel y speaking , large even for the time of year ; while a very great improvement was noticed in their general quality , particularly in the . shorthorns , Dcvous , Hereford * , and runts " ; indeed , we may venture to observe that a much finer show was scarcely over noticed here tlurin nr the present month . This may be chiefly attributed to the abundance of pasture herbage . Prospcctively , a iurthcr increase in quality may bo expected consequently no immediate advance can be anticipated in value . Although the attendance of buvers was
rather numerous , the beef trade was in a * very depressed state and , in most transactions , the quotations ruled 2 d per 81 b ., under those obtained on Monday last . The highest figure for the best Scots did not exceed -Is . 2 d . per 31 b ., and at which a clearance was not effected . The numbers of sheep were larger than those exhibited for some time past . A Uioug i there was an improvement in their eon . dition , the pnmest old Downs sold at prices quite equal to those paid last week , viz ., . fe . ] 0 d . to 6 s . per Sib ., but all other breeds met a dull inquiry , and the quotations were with difficulty supported . ' The gradual iiitcrease m the receipts of . sheep , and the
improvement noticed in their quality , lead us to the conclusion that , ere long , especially should the arrivals connuer to improve ( of which we have little doubt ) , lowcrcuircncies wilLlieacccntcd by the salesmen , lhe season for lamb-is now last drawing to a dose-, yet the arrivals from KOucj Svuso ; and the northern counties , were again . luvw , -ttn- all kind the demand ruled heavy , at ii depression us vi , ! n .. ,-, r 2 d . per 81 b . The very highest ( i guVc was us . *! , On ' the whole we had a fair sale for calves , and last weo !; . V currencies were mostly supported . Tlie ' best pigs ' were in demand ; but all others were a dnff "• inquiry . ' • 1 here were on offer about 200 from Dublin and Cork . " By the quantities of 81 b ., sinking the offal .
Inferior coarso beasts » ' ' s jj" n * Second quality ... 3 •) 4 Prime large oxen . . . . 3 g 3 10 lTnno Scots , &e 4 0 4 2 Coarse inferior sheep ¦ « 3 4 3 8 Second quality . . . . » 10 ' 4 4 I ' rimu uuarsc woollcd , . 4 g 4 8 Prime Southdown . , 450 fi „ J-ambs -. . . . 48 r , B Large coarse calves .... a 0 4 4 Prime small 4 C 4 10 Suckling calves , each . . . ' 18 0 30 » Large liogs . , , , ¦ 3 0 3 8 Neat small povltcvs . . ' 3 10 4 0 Quarter-old store pigs , each . . 18 0 20 e HEAD OF CATTLE ON 8 ATB .
, _ ( From the Uoolis of the Clerk of the Market ) Beasts , 3 , 400- Sheep and l . amhs , 2 ( 5 , 210—Calves , 134-I ? igs , al 5 . Ricmioxn Cons Makkc t , August lG . —Thc coil-Unued uniavoumble weather and the limited stock ot gram in the country , caused an advance of prices in our market to-day . Wheat sold from 7 s . i ) d to 8 s . 9 d . ; oats 3 s . to -Is . ; barley Is . to 4 s . Cd . ; beans Is . Gd . to os . per bushel . Manchester Coh . v Markkt , Saturdat . Aug . ] C — iJurmg the week the weather , although still unsettled , with a low temperature , has undergone somo improvement 111 characterwhich
circumstancecon-, , nected with the depression in Mark-Jane , contrary to all calculation , has checked any speculative purchases ; whilst the continued liberal supplic-sof wheat winch advanced prices have brought forward attract general attention , and at present there is no evidence ot a scarcity of British growth . The business doira at our market this morning has liccn only to a moderate extent , in cither wheat or Hour ; and , though we make no change in our quotations , prices wcre ' in favour oi the buyer . The value of oats and oatmeal was linnly supported , but there was no activity in the trade . A few loads of oatmeal front Ireland / the produce oi this season , wernsnld in l . ivnvnnni v « i .,..
day , at 35 s . per 2401 bs . J LivEisrooh Cous Mabkkt , Mosdat , Abgvst 18 — Our market continues to be liberally supplied with , wheat awl Hour from Ireland ; otherwise the imports arc light . J-roin abroad we have no arrival of importance . The duty on Foreign wheat and beans has this week declined Is . per qr . on each . The late advance in the value of wheat has induced the principal growers of English to bring to market a muck greater quantity than it was calculated that they held , and though the weather has been by no means satisfactory for the progressing of the crop ' s , the large show of last year ' s produce has contributed to depress the trade throughout the kingdom , and prices have declined from Is . to-is . per quarter . In thismarkct , holders generally have evinced less disposition to uivc
way ; but to effect sales of English and Irish wheat rom the ship , a decline of Id . to 2 d . per bushel has beciv submitted to . flour has also participated in the depression on wheat . No business ofhnnorlancc has occurred in bonded wheat and Hour during the week , and prices remain nominally as quoted last iues . lay . The small supply of Irish o ; Us and oatmeal has enabled holders to realise full prices ; the demand however , has been very circumscribed . Juarley inuls a ready sale for grinding purposes at 3 s . 8 d . to < Js . 3 d . per GOlbs . ; beans and peas maintain the late advance , whilst Indian corn is fully Is . per quarter dearer . At Friday ' s market a small lot of Irish new oatmeal was sold at 3 . > s . per IMOlbs ., and a little shipment of Irish new here at 3 s . !>< l . nor UOlbs . Livjjiii'ooi . Cattix Maiikkt , Mo . nhav , Aug . 18 — lhe supply of cattle at market this day has been rather smaller than last week , the greatest part of Which was ot second-rate quality . There bciii" a .
numerous attendance oi" buyers , anything good was eagerly sought after , and sold at last week ' s prices . Beet od . to Old ., mutton Old . to W ., and lamb fild . to id per lb Cattle imported into Liverpool from the 11 th to the 18 th of August :-cows S 92 : j ; calves o 2 ; sheep 12 , 002 ; lambs 320 ; pigs im ; horses 01 . York Cons Mauket , August 10 . —We have a good supply of wheat at this day ' s market , which met a taiv sale at last week ' s prices . Oats and beans scarce , and rather dearer . Maltox Cons Market , August IP ,.- We have a fair supply of wheat offering to this day ' s market , but very short , of oats . Wheat sold on much the same terms ns last week . Oats rather dearer . I ' arlcy nominal . Wheat , red , from o-ls . to 02 s ; white ditto , 5 Ss . to CJs . per qr . of 40 stones ; oats , Hid . to 12 Jd . per stone .
Lekds Corn -VlAniir / r , Tuksdav , 'August 10 . — The supply of win at is moderate , of oats and beans it is again short . In conscqiu-nco oi" the dull reports ot Mark-lane , our millers are cautious buyers of wheat while on the other hand the damn showery weather causes ( actors to be firm : we have therefore to report a rather slow trade at about the rates of last wick . In oats and beans there is more firmness , and there is also some inquiry to-day for barley an < malt . Leeds Cloth Maiucets . —In consequence of the present state of the weather , and the consequent poor harvest prospects , trade has only been dull , both lit the Cloth Halls and in the warehouses . The stocks arc yet only comparatively small ; and , unless there is a speedy change lo move favourable weather , will rapidly accumulate .
Maltox Foiit . mgiit Catti . k Faiii , August 19 , — i here was a good show of fat beasts at this fair , and an increased attendance of buyers , being nearl y all sold up , at prices some little lower than the nveced nig fair . There was r . lso a good show of Scotch beasts , with a brisk demand for them , and m aw ^ TSW * sales effected at rather better price I ka « K -&S ^ with little variation » n price . The sumilv (*^ Kw ^ i '^"> Is r . sf ¦ $ ! ' at l ) l ; iccs llbout thcsamc nAiitis : ^ . ) ¦ : ¦ ¦ vvoliSencied ™* busiricssto S Air , Mf ^ : ^ . . * 1 ; - ¦ . .. - .. ¦ ' . ¦ ¦ ¦ ¦¦ ¦ - > ; 1 : S : ,. $ mm - ¦ - ¦ -: '¦¦ : ^^ U ^ -&
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Losdos Cons Exciiasoe , Monday , August 13 . — Up to Saturday last the weather continued very unsettled , but it has since undergone a decided improvement , and should there be no return of wet , harvest operations would bo immediately commenced on an extensive ' scale . In most of the south and southwestern counties reaping was partially bequn nearly a fortnightago , but the n ' rcvalence of wet has hitherto prevented any quantity being carried . Thc reports as to the probable result of the harvest are quite as various as at any former period , somo parties insisting that scarcely any injury has been done by the untoward character of thc weather during thc greater part of the summer , whilst others represent the mischief as very extensive . We feel disposed to steer a middle course . To affirm that the wheat plant has
not been injured more or less by the want of genial warmth and the excessive wet experienced in July and August , would-be absurd ; at the same time we feel perfectly convinced that thc uneasiness so generally entertained on thc subject has caused the evil done by the weather to be a good deal exaggerated . As compared with last year ' s produce there' will , no doubt , be a very great deficiency ( but it must be recollected that the crop was then an extraordinary one ); even to expect a bare average yield may , under all circumstances , be regarded as sanguine , but that the deficiency would bo serious 111 case the next month should prove favourable for the ingathering we do not apprehend . Notwithstanding thc sli < -ht reaction which has recently taken place in prices the larmers have continued to bring forward good supliesand at all the
p , principal provincial markets held since our last the value of the article has undergone a further depression . The arrival of wheat coastwise into London during the week ending Saturday last has amounted to nearly 20 , 000 qvs ., bein « the largest supply we ever recollect at the corresponding season Jov many years . In addition to the quantity reported there was an abundant show of samples at Mark-lane this morning by land carriage from Essex , Aent , and Suffolk , making altogether an enormous supply . Under- these circumstances the auspicious change m the weather told with double effect ; the consequence was a depression in prices of 2 s to 3 s per qr . At this reduction the millers bought very sparingly , and all inclination to make speculative investment having subsided , a largo quantity was left unsold at the close of business . A few samples' of new
wheat were exhibited of tolerably good quality , but haying been gathered when wet , the condition was soft . The transactions in foreign wheat were to-day of very little importance ; duty-paid parcels might have been bought somewhat cheaper , but there were no purchasers ; bonded samples were hold at about former rates , without , however , exciting any attention . Quotations of town-manufactured flour remained nominally unaltered . Ship qualities were more pressingly offered and the turn cheaper . There was hardly any English barley exhibited , and thc trifling sales cticcted were at prices quite equal to those realised on this day se ' nnight . Malt , particularly the finer sorts , was saleable in retail quantities at iully previous rates . The market was sparingly supplied with Enelish and Scntrh nnts mui M . *
arrivals from Ireland were only moderate ; having however , fair receipts of foreign , and further supplies being expected from Archangel , Riga , &c ., the dealers conducted tlieir operations with more than ordinary caution , and last Monday ' s currency was scarcely maintained . Beans were taken oil" at quite as high prices as those obtained at any former period for some months past . "White reas met a slow sale , but grey and maple were in lively request at previous terms . * CURRENT PRICES OP GUAIN , PER IMPERIAL QHAliTER .-BWfo * . 8 8 s s Wheat , Essex , & Kent , new & old red 49 fil White 50 fl" > — Norfolk and Lincoln . ... do SO 50 Ditto 58 CO
Nortiium . and Scotch white 50 57 Fine flO 07 ¦ Irish red old 0 0 Red 48 51 White S 2 SG Rye Old 2 !) 32 Xuw 20 30 Krank 34 3 J Hurley Grinding .. 20 27 Distil . 28 80 Malt . 3132 Malt Drown .... 52 54 Tale 55 5 !) Waro CO C 2 Means Ticksoldttucw 37 3 S HivvvowSS 40 Vineon 41 42 l ' eas Grey 35 38 Maple 37 38 White 38 40 Outs Lincolns & Yorkshire Feed 22 21 Poland 21 20 Scotch Angus i ! 3 25 Potato 2 G 28 Irish . . . , White 20 23 Ulack 20 22 Per 2 S 0 lb . net . s s Per 2 S 0 lb . net . s s Tcwn-nuideriour . , , 51 53 Norfolk & Stoclcton 3 fi 38 Essex iiiid Kent .... 3 S 42 I Irish ....... 37 30
Froe . Bond . Foreign . s 8 « - a Wheat , Dantsic , Konigslmrg , Ac 59 61 ¦ 47 59 Marks , Mecklenburg 56 58 40 44 Danish , llolstcm , and Prieshmtl red -IS 52 32 3 G : —Russian , Hard 4 S 52 Soft ... 48 52 32 SI Italian , Red . . 50 52 Whito . . . 54 5 ( i 30 40 Spanish , Hard . 50 52 Soft .... 52 5 « 3 li K 8 Rye , llaltie . Dried , ... 28 SO Undvied . . 28 38 24 l ; 5 Barley , Grinding . 24 2 G Malting . . 28 32 19 24 Deans , Ticks . . 34 30 Egyptian . 34 35 29 33 Peas . 'WliUe . . 37 39 Jlayle . . SG 37 28 8 » Oats ; Dutch , Urew and Thick ..... . . 23 25 20 21 Russian feed .. ....,.,,,.,, 20 22 14 If Danish , i ' riesland feed . [ , .... . . 20 22 14 10 Flour , per barrel ,..,..,., . ' - , , , ,, 2 S o 0 21 i' 4
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AVERAGE PRICES Of the last six weeks , which regulate tlie Duties from the 14 th to the 20 th of August . ~ " . WheatISarleit Outs . Hue . Beans l ' eas . ___^ — '¦ — 1 ¦ ——s . H . s . d . s . d . s . d . s . d . s . d . Week ending ! July 5 , 1845 .. 47 11 29 10 22 8 31 0 8810 39 5 Week ending ! Julyl 2 , l 815 .. | 48 10 29 0 22 0 33 11 39 8 33 11 Week ending ! July 19 , 1845 .. 50 0 20 G 22 4 32 S 39 0 40 2 Week ending ! ; July 2 G , lS 43 ., j 51 7 29 2 22 5 31 7 40 3 38 10 Week endingl Aug . 2 , 1815 .. | 53 S 29 Sj 22 5 34 G 40 5 41 0 Week ending : Aug . 0 , 1815 .. ! 55 3 29 " ' 22 8 33 10 41 0 30 0 Aggregate avev . j j ajre of the last < j six weeks .. 51 2 29 5 22 0 3 " 11 ! 40 0 39 6 London . averages ( ending Aug . 12 , 1 S 45 ) i fil 5 20 10 22 1 83 0 42 2 40 7 Duties .. .. ' 19 0 !) o ' j i ; o iQ p' . 2 c a , j Iupouts fuom August 11 to August 17 , inclusive . ENGLISH SCOTCH . 1 H 1 SH . FuItElGN TOTAL . Wheat .. .. lfl . iilS 42 0 23 , 818 43 . 66 S Barley .. " .. 10 2 , 580 0 3 . S . V 2 8 , 442 Oats .. .. 1 , 289 I , 2 u 3 10 , 048 19 , 514 S 2 uS 4 Uye .... o o o o 0 Beans " .. .. 515 0 o 2 : ii 740 Peas .. .. 54 0 0 30 Si Malt .. .. 3 , 229 0 24 0 3 l 25 a lares .... 0 0 0 G O I j insecd .. 000 G . 988 C 9 S 8 Uapi'sectl .. 70 0 0 45 115 Hour , sacks 5 , 54 ( 1 0 0 0 554 c Ditto bils ... 0 0 0 350 350
.Foreign $Tobemtnt& '
. foreign $ tobemtnt& '
Agriculture Anfc Fetuulture*
agriculture anfc fetuulture *
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A New Vabiett of Baiiley . —In a recent number of the " Journal of Agriculture and Transactions of the Highland aud Agricultural Society of Scotland , " there appeared the following intercstinj : and instructive article , by tlie Rev . J . . Noble , of Madoes , Perthshire , on a new and valuable species of barley . Tlie reader wUl see , in tlie history of this species , a striking proof of the benefits resulting from habits of observation and perseverance , lluw many thousands would have passed the single ear from which .-the results detailed by Mr . Noble have proceeded , without notice , or with only a passing thought , if their attention had even been called to it : —in the end ol July , 1 S 3 S , I observed a single ear of barley in a field of tlie Dunlop species , which , from its marked difl ' vrencc from those around it , and also from any that I examined in the neighbouring fields , 1 supposed might turn out to be a new specks . Accordingly I marked its position , and when it was ripe , secured it . In 183 l > it was sown in a border of the garden , and from the produce retaining all the peculiarities of the original ear , and alsolrom the unusual length ,
stiffness , and brightness of the straw , I felt no doubt that my first supposition was well founded . The produce of 1839 ( about a handful ) was sown in ISiO , and thc result was a small slicaf . This yielded nearly a lippy , which , being sown iu 1811 , produced thirteen large sheaves , that , when thrashed , produced not quite a bushel . In 1 S 42 , as the produce of the bushel , I had about two quarters , not highly cleaned , but fit for seed . I was now persuaded , from the quantity returned in proportion to what was sown ' ( taking at the same time into consideration the quantity and the quality of the land where it was sown ) , and also from the excellent tillering character of the barley , and the length ' and ' stiffness- of ¦ the straw , that , while it was a new , it would also turn out to be a valviaWe , variety . And , accordingly , in
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1 S « . I sowed the whole produce of 1842 in a field , which iu my ordinary rotation of cropping , was designed for barley-the previous crop had been wheat alter potatoes , and there was no manure given to the bartey . At the same time and in the same field there was sown a proportion of early English barley , mainly lor the purpose o » ascertaining the comparative earlinessolthetwo varieties , though I had in view also tlie comparative productiveness . The result was tliat , iu point of eariiness , the English had the advantage by three or four days , but in point of productiveness the new variety had a much greater advantage , being at the rate of eleven bolls or sixty-six bushels per acre , while the rate of the English was not more than seven and a half bollsor forty-five
, bushels , per acre . Those persons in the neighbourhood who saw the crop while growing in 1843 , were so satisfied with its superiority in every respect , that all that I had to spare for seed was eagerly sought after ; and . I now find , from the testimony of those who made the trial of it and have proved it , that its higii productive qualities as indicated in previous years have been fully maintained One gentleman , viz ., Mr . John llamiie , Inchyra House , in this neighbourhood , sowed two acres seventeen falls Scotch , with a quarter of the new variety , and having throned the produce , he informs me that it is fully twentyeight bolls , being at the rate of nearly fourteen bolls , of six bushels each , per acre . Me Young , Cairnie Mill , on tne estate of Pitfour , also in this neighbourhood
. ; i ) ' l , whose judgment in a matter of this kind is entitled to the highest respect , states to mo generally tuat he is satisfied it will prove a valuable variety , particularly for light soil , and that , having himself sown six bushels of it , his return , in point both of quantity and quality , is much superior to that of the early English variety sown in the same field . In quantity he says that he has eleven bolls per acre , llobert Webster , Esq ., of Balruddery , near Dundee , sowed a quarter of it . and he informs me that its superiority in his field had been obvious throu » hout the whole season , and though not yet thrashed , to snow bow much satisfied he was with it , he said " he wished he had had his whole field sown with it . " f here are several other persons who sowed it from * % ¦ A ' ** ** w ^ »¦ ^« w ^ v * » A uiii whom 1 have not
as yet obtained any report but I have reason to believe that there is not any one among them who is not persuaded that it is a valuable variety . Distinctive Characteristics . — The distinctive characteristics of this new species of barley arc these : —( 1 . ) Up to the time of riyieninir , the skin maintains a glossy whiteness without the slightest streak of brown , while all other varieties are marked by more or less of a brown tinge , the ridges of the gram being uniformly streaked with a brown line , ( a . ) A second peculiarity is to be found in tho brighter colour and greater strength of tho straw than 111 the common varieties . ( 3 . ) And a third peculiarity is to be seen in the greater distance of the grains from one another on the ear than in the
ordidinary varieties , so that an ear of the new variety with twelve grains on each side , will be found fully three quarters of an inch longer than one with the same number of grains of either the Chevalier or early English kind . Advantages . — ' £ * & superior productiveness of the new variety is its most obvious and strongest recommendation , but for light soils especially the length of its straw must render it advantageous . Its tillering properties ought not to bo overlooked ; and particularly for moist districts , where barley is apt to sprout suddenly after being 111 the stook , the distance at which the grains are placed from one another in the ear may be regarded as a valuable qualification , inasmuch as moisture will not obtain suck a ready resting-place , nor be so long retained , as in a more compactly constructed
ear . Cottage Faiiming . —It would bo very serviceable to the cottage fanner to have always on hand a double quantity of manure , which , by judicious management , may be easily effected . Supposing at the time of sowing carrot seed , he lays on the space a tolerable dressing of manure , and all the bones ( pounded , ground , or dissolved in oil of vitriol ) that he can collect ; these turned in to the depth dug ( which for carrots should be deep ) , will naturally attract the roots of the carrots , inducing a heavy crop . Corresponding with this benefit , there is the manure blending and mixing its virtues with the soils around , and thus preparing the ea rth for wheat in the most effectual way : for all crops are the better both for taste and health to the consumer , by the manures being so incorporated with the ground as to approximate as close as possible to nature . ¦
Charcoal . —Powdered charcoal , as a manure , is highly beneficial , especially to plants that are stunted in their growth , weakly , or unhealthy . Great trouble may be saved oy the cultivator always having some at band : lor a little strewed around , or mixed with the earth , near the plants requiring its services will quickly restore them to healthful vigour . The action of charcoal consists primarily in preserving those plants , or parts of plants , to which it is contiguous , unchanged in the vital power for a Ions space of time .
so that the plant can develope those organs requisite for its future support and propagation . It exercises also a favourable influence by decomposing and absorbing the matters excre ed by the roots , keeping tlie soil ( by its porosity ) free from vitious putrefying matter . Mixed with earth , charcoal is excellent , in causing cuts 01 plants to throw out roots ; and also the germination of seeds , whether in the open air or hot beds . Experiments have proved that charcoal made from pine is the best , on account of its porositv and its quickly decaying . "
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY . A DIGEST FROM THE LECTURES OF PROFESSOIl BRATOX . " Organic Chemistry signifies the chemical history of the various proximate principles which have been observed in the animal and vegetable kingdoms , and which are there associated together , so as to produce : > peculiar structure , termed organic , such as is never seen in any of the products of the mineral kingdom . Gum , sugar , starch , woody fibre , albumen , fibrine , gelatine , aud all those numerous substances of which plants and the budies of animals are composed , constitute those proximate principles which are the products of animated nature . "Or . D . B . £ eid .
( Continued from our fost . J _ 8 . It is not intended , in these investigations , to go into the details of the chemistry of the atmosphere , water , carbon , and so forth ; but only to notice certain important points connected with them . In looking at the composition of theatmosphcre , wefind it contains carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and nitrogen . All these are found in the atmosphere ; the great bulk of the air we breathe being made up of nitrogen and oxygen , to which hydrogen issuperadded in the form of water , and carbon in the form of carbonic acid ; and it may be said further , that nitrogen exists in the air in the torin of ammonia—in very minute quantities , however . Thc following table will show the composition of the atmosphere : — By measure . By weight . Nitrogen 77 ' 5 * 75-55 Oxygen 2 ' 1 23 * 32 Aqueous vapour T 42 1 * 03 Carbonic acid 003 0-10
100 . 100 . It will be observed by this table , that the great bulk of the atmosphere is made up of nitrogen and oxygen , there is about one part in 100 of aqueous or watery vapour , aud one part in 1000 of carbonic acid : so that , whether we take the constituents of the air by bulk or by measure , we find that by far the greater portion is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen ; not a compound , but a mere mixture !* Thc properties of these substances may be hastily adverted to : carbon must be taken up pretty much in detail , in conseoiiencc of thc
very important functions it performs . # 9 . Nitrogen—or , as it is sometimes called , azoteis a gaseous body , somewhat lighter than air ; it is colourless , and has neither taste , smell , nor solubility . If a lighted taper be put into ajar of this gas , it is immediately extinguished . However much it may be agitated with water , none of it is taken up ; so that it is not soluble . Tliese arc sonic of the properties by which nitrogen may bs recognised in its free anil pure state : it is a highly important clement of certain organic bodies .
10 . Another element is oxygen , which , like nitrogen , is a gaseous body : in its pure isolated state it is a little heavier than common air ; and it possesses the power of supporting combustion with splendour and eagerness . 11 . To illustrate the composition and characters of atmospheric air , pure nitrogen and pure oxygen may be mixed in the relative proportions of four parts by measure of thc former to one of the latter . In such a mixture a candle will burn precisely as iu common air . If too much oxygen be added , the
caudle will bum brighter ; if too much nitrogen , it will burn dimly ; but if the proportions be nicely balanced , it will burn . is in common air . We must not , however , suppose that because we can thus produce something equivalent to atmospheric air , we have all its essential elements ; for without water , it would be unfit for respiration and the growth of plants ; and without carbonic acid , unfit equally for the vegetable world . Water is a very important constituent of the atmosphere ; but tlie proportion in which it is found is extremely variable . Its value is
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Ilai'tot Intellijtnte*" '
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* Tiiercarc three degrees of chemical attraction : the result of the iirst and lowest degree is mixture ; of the second , tolnliov ; and of the third , and most energetic , composition . Uy mixture , the properties of bodies are not essentially changed ; but those of thc resulting product are in some degree intermediate between their component parts . Tlie properties of bodies are not changed by solution , any more than by mixture ; and in this case , "I so , the characters of thc resulting product partake oftliosc of its ingredients . lsut , unlike the ease of mixture , there is a limit to the power of solution ; and liquids cannot combine with more than a certain quantity of anv gaseous or solid body : thus water will take up , or hold ' in solution , no more than a certain known weight of alum or salt . The point at which the action betwten tlie two bodies ceases , if called thc point utsaturation . Up to this point the two bodies may combine in any proportion . In composition , the result of the highest degree of chemical attraction , tbe union ot bodies takes place in the most intimate manner , and only in definite'proportions , which ave invariable in the same compound ; and the union is commonly accompanied by an entire change of the sensible properties of the bodies united , and a third substance , totally different from tliese , is the result ,
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A X ' GCSI 23 I 845 - THE NORTHERN st . p ,
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Citation
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Aug. 23, 1845, page 7, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/vm2-ncseproduct1329/page/7/
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