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PORTRAIT OF W. P. ROBERTS, ESQ.
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THE NORTHERN STAR SATURDAY. SEPTEMBER 2, 1843.
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Note: This text has been automatically extracted via Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. The text has not been manually corrected and should not be relied on to be an accurate representation of the item.
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Untitled Ad
Mr . O'Coksox has received communications from nany districts in ail of -which a very great desire is expressed to have a portrait of Mr . Roberts , the people ' s Attoiaey-CreneraL We cannot wonder that a strong -wish should be entertained to possess a likeness of so truly amiable , talented , and true a man ; and although -we know that Mr . O'Connor had determined to give no more Portraits , yet "we have the pleasure to announce that all Subscribers for Three Months , from Saturday , the 16 th of Sept , will receive A PORTRAIT OB W . P . ROBERTS , THE PEOPLES ATTORNEYCFENERAL . We request the several Agents to open lists for the enrolling of names , ri none but Snbscribers from the above dates "will receive a plate . Th » price of Paper and Plate -when presented will be Sixpence ; and none -win be sold without tbe papsr .
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ORGANIZATION . 10 THE EDITOE OF THE SOUTHS ** STAB . SrR ,-I have read your " Plan cf GrganisiUan " cwefttlly through , and « a member of tbe Chartist bedy , I ntun yon ny thanks for the graft labour aud pains -which yon must necessarQv have bestowed upon it ; ana although I have been opposed to the incorporation of the land scheme -with our movement , yet , upon due consideration of the arguments , jw . and «* , I am perfetty reccmtflea to it , partkataly » s tha a no taw to luu ^ plitting . My only lean vae , that a might lead to tl » establishment « f a -sort of aristocracy in ow -jsaks , or take the * ttentia * of our irost actiTe mea irom ^ be great question of fee Charter -
Iwmember veH , that T * feen Sociafcs * societies iww Jn tteir infancy , the poorest workli ^ -men , andthe fc-fcter paid ones ^ eerfolry fratera : !** -witn each otter- ; ^ tat , in process-rftime , as they gained greater Tstwmgtb * nd stability , * ad had erected " Hails of Science ; " the -weH-pald members bad their Halfcrtastefnlly decorated . ; formed dancJEg andiaaruBement dtsses , andiweame-so -exclusive in ¦ their mantera and notions , that the poorer snembers , v&o thoogte more abeet dinners than danees , ^ graduallyTrithdrew . ; and the -safeties thus lost their -original easrgy . In-Ilka manner the Chartists commen--c ^ d estabKihiBg-co- « perative-stores , in 1839 . That at JfewcasBe-apon-Tyre was established on a very estea-^ Te s ca ^ and ttm very prosperous for a tim *; bot ttie
• tteofioa of their most acfrre members "being almeat solely -engrossed in -weigttiBg tea and sugar , -End measoring potatoes , they neglected the public meetings . " 33 » -splendid ! -spirit of CbKrtisin , -which previously existed , -was amoved to die away ; and tteoogh this neglect , both the store and Association came to-nottiing . For these reasons , and with such facts before oar eyes , I Bfcould therefore \ risb ; that the benefits 1 » be'deriTed &tim the land -Fund , might be placed un ^ er such lestricfiona as to make it -imperative on all connected ¦ wife it , to be good and efficient members of the 3 ? BMonal-ChaTtei Association , properly discharging the duties of any office assigned them ; and that some connecting link should bind them to tfeeir Buffering brethren , even vfUa Itoaied onQieland .
It is quite clear that something practicable ought to % t « wnmenced . Tec-pie "will not be content xo waste fteJr lives listening to speeches , although they are absolutely necessary in the first instance . ILsi us there--f ore-Bet ta work in good earnest , and exert ourselves "with increased energy , to make up for the time which is * been lost in foolish and -unmeaning bickerings , which , I hope , are now completely done -away with , to give place tea more brotherly and frieodlyfeeling ; -and 'I trust the 'Gonference will adopt some plan to xemoTB any Tain or splenetic booby from amongst us , who wishes to create division for hia own-gratification , to the injury of "the cause . 1 look forward with hope aad confidence to "the forthcoming Conference . It will comprise our best ind well-tried friends , ( free from
• " pedlars" and tadBcers ) who , with their « wn knowledge and experience , will have the benefit of all that has teen written on the subject , and your copious and wellsrranged plan for their guide . I trust that they will make the performance of political duty a-qualification for the enjoyment of the benefits to be derived from the Jaari Jnnd ^ and adept such measures as will hinder * h » members of that ¥ un& from giving cause of complaint to such of our poor fellows as can scarcely prepare a penny loaf . I think it would ts a good plan to introduce a clause-enabling the members of a branch to elect a person who had proved himself a good ana useful Chartist , bnt-eould not affjrd to pay to the Fund .
This would induce all the members to take an interest in it , and hold out hopes and encouragement to all , besides letting the werid see what Chartism really is . it would create a irotherly feeling throughout the whole . society , and enable those whose trades are not yet crushed by the sbaa of capital and machinery , to bold out a helping -hand to their more unfortunate brethren ; besides enabling them to protect those who Were persecuted , or driven -from their empiojment , through ^ the advocacy of Chartism . This , in itself , would bs an inducement for men to be good members of the / National Charter Association ; as , in my opinion , the Charter should be kept in view , above , and before , all other things .
1 should not trouble you , Hi . Edilor , with , these ranarks , had 1 been at liberty . I should then probably have bad my say amongst our other friends . But as I * sn in a prison where i -can tcrile , 1 have taken the liberty of -claiming a corner in your forthcoming Star . linteard to forward my thooghts , on the political portion of the Organization , to the chairman of the Conference ; and fcincerely hoping that the deliberations of the delegates may tend to the benefit of the millions , I am , yours truly , Geobge "White . Queen * Prison , Au * uit 3 &tl ) , 2 S 43 .
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PARADISE WHHLS THE BEACH OF £ LL TAKS WITHOUT 1 ABOUB , BY-POWERS OF KATUBE AKD MACHINERY . Letteb it .
TO THE XDITOB . 0 ? THE SORTS EB . S STAS . DEX& SlB—There are many prejudices in the minds of men , in regard to the benefits conferred on B » ciety by the progress of science and the introduction o ! machinery * ; I think it therefore necessary to » y a few words on this subject before 7 proceed to a more special deTeJopement of the means and ways to realize the promises held out in ay former letters . Tee lowest , most simple , although most important 2-vbouT 3 , the cultivation vt the land and production of food , r-rrB t ren performed , and in -a great measuTe are Cow performed by slaves , serfs , end agricultural labourers , who bave always been regarded and . treated I- ; machines . It is therefore not te be wondered that machinery has not been employed in this branch of human affaixa . aa it would only have been like aubstitutine one set
of machines for another , in the minds of our sapient politicians and economists . It is vastly different with the trades in genexal ^ whieh have been invented and practised , tscordl ^ g to "Mythology , by ths gods themselves , and who necssaaxily developed the minds of the artizins Goldsmiths Associated with Kings , and Qseens have T ^ en tought the art of spinning . The artisans were enabled to travel through different countries and to improve theii capacities , not being bound to any particular 3 > la ~ for their labour and maintenance . We find in all former trades , which are now carried on by machinery , men of the brightest minds , who continued to improve their tools , until they finally brought them | to such a jsrfestlon , that children or thoughtless men could work with them as well or better , than the most experienced and expert workman in the old style .
The minds who constructed machines , worked not for Fib labourers who afterwards handled them , merely re * quiring their bodies . These poor men having no inducement for mental culture in their trades , or labours , graflua'ly sunk to a raete a-mm » i ^ xisience . The propr ietors , foiemen or directors of machines formed a new c *? " 3 s in society , rivalling in wealth and intelligence the proprietors and barons of the land , bnt reducing their labourers to the same scale as the labourers of the £ eldr The multiplicaHon of machines and the consequent production of trarmfncttireta became enormous .
3 £ n 3 ls 3 d with its artificial powers and machines now 'produces more than six hundred millions [ of men could produce with their -manurO labours and unimproved t » ls . As long as other nations were absorbed in war , England was the factory for the whole world , and drew » TI the money from foreign countries almost as fast a = that money was paid to them in the shape of subsidies , sad advanced to them in the shape of State debts- ; and ior paper securities , whieh now constitutes the greal wealth of money aristocrats . Arkwrightand Peel have bscome richer than priDces ; but their labourers hare 1 ~ 3 ome as miserable r * slaves and serfs .
It is evident that there must be something fundamentally wrong , or such a circumstance could not have Irippenad i a circumstance which shows , tb * t - in the some proportion ¦ were the producers impoverished snd bmtalised , I taka this fundamental error to fee the cee-sided improvement or application of machinery . Machinery has merely been appliedfto manufactures ; t * the production of the secondary wants of men ; to tie production of so-called articles of luxury ; whereas the production of the primary wants , food , bouses , && , G £ ? e been carried on without the aid of science and machinery . The necessary result of this one-sided
improvement was a surplus of less necessary things and a scarcity of tie mest necessary ones . The surplus of manufactures caused a reduction of the wsgesof manufacturing labourers , at the time when provisions and lodgings -were raised in pries . All the earnings of the labourer in the factories were necessary to satisfy the feungerof himself ^ a hb dnidren , so that he could aot even partake of Ms own manufactures , no matter < £ S a ^ oine to *>««* . If the production of foodand nouses coula hare been increased like manu-DOt 8 to
a ^* ^^ *!*¦* W ° a late different ? SS 2 US 2 T * ^^ " * p »«« o ap ^ y The production of raanufacture , does not xeouire iglssssss
W . Cotton , Esq ., Governor of the Bank of Eneland has invented , a few months ago , a wedghmg autoSJ Tlu ^ weighsjana ^ sortawitfa the griS SS 5 tun thousand sovereigns in six hours Trhrnu H ^ expsripc ^ te&rcan ^ y weighTv ' e ^ &fK same tune , and this with the risk to his « , « , * £ aerveK U machines can be made for such fine com plicated , snd delicate labours , for Hie labours of gentle men , should common humanity not induce -us to mak iome machines for the coarse and simple laoours an drudgeries of slaves , serfs , and agricultural labourers ' Certainly ; bail macbinBSWO ^ it work by themselves - sm Although a spring not stronger than the spring ef a cetc mon clock , can , by being w » nnd up , assort snd wei *] 20 ^> 00 sovereigns before it is unwound , it takes son ?
iiung more powerfal to dig aod pulverise the groui And this power Is none other than the powers of nata H > 3 t hBTO biaerto been w little thought or made n of , when they ahonldj have at first drawn the attest ! of men ; being first to assist them in their labor mud in ths production of their comforts . These i the powers which fhall sod B > B 5 t be made uh of ,
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men will ever be free anfi independent : and well may we hail the appearance , of a ™ nn of genius and penetration Ijke ET 2 LEB , who proves ho admirably that the * ' powers of natr je are Bubservtent to man if ho has faith in Provide . 'iC 8 , and never dreams of common sense , " impossibilifres . * ' He says in his " Paradise / page C i— " The bfusiB of my proposals is , that there are powers &mture at the disposal of man , million times greater ton &U the sen cm earth could efect , with their united exertions , by their nerves and sinews . If I can -sbtw that such a superabundance of power is mt
our disposal , what should be tbe objection agaisst applying them to our benefit in tbe best manner we can ^ fhink of ? If we have the xequlsite power for metfianical purposes , it is then but a matter of bmman contrivance to invent adapted toela or machines for application . Powers mast pre-exist ; they essaot ba invented ; they may be discovered ; no mechaaisai can produce power : It wo « ld be as absurd to invest tools , to work without any applied power to put them m operation . Machineries , of whatever contrivance taey "be , are nothing but tools more or less combined . "
I am , Sir , your obedient servant , C . P . SXOLI-METER . No . 3 , Northampton Terrace , City Boad , London . Aug . 15 , 1843 . ( To be oonlinued , ]
Portrait Of W. P. Roberts, Esq.
PORTRAIT OF W . P . ROBERTS , ESQ .
The Northern Star Saturday. September 2, 1843.
THE NORTHERN STAR SATURDAY . SEPTEMBER 2 , 1843 .
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OUE POSITION " . FAILURE OF OUR MANUFACTURES . " OTHt LAST AND ONLY RESOURCE , THE LAND . " It behoves us , as a people , to look well to our present position : not only to our position at home , as regards the physical and moral condition of our population , but also to oar position abroad : and tbe probability , 6 t otherwise , of onr being able to maintain the standing we have hitherto obtained ia the markets of the world .
On several , nay , on many occasions , we have , in the Northern Star , examined our home position . We have often shewn that the physical condition of the labouring portion of the community is deplorable in the extreme . We have shewn , this to be the case , by the evidence of the factory masters themselves , and by the evidence of other employers of labonr . We have BhBwn that when these have instituted personal examinations into the condition of the workers , they hare fonnd them , in their miserable dwellings , without food , bedding , or furniture : wishing " that Almighty God -would pot an end to
their sufferings before morning . " We have shewn that every Extension of Commerce" from tbe year 1798 , downward to the present time , ( the period embraced in the returns which have been kept of oar yearly foreign commerce ) , has brought in its train a diminuiion of prices , pbofiis , and WAGES . We have Bhewn that in 1841 we had a Foreign Trade almost equal to six times the amount in 17 S 8 ; and that for ihejive times increase , we only received tbe difference between £ 33 , 006 , 000 and £ M , 060 , ft 00 , to speak in round numbers . We hare shewn that the weaver -who , in 1798 , received 15 i . for weaving
| twelve yards of the 60-reed 6-4 ths cambnes , in 1832 only received Is . 7-id . for the same amouat of work : and in 184 * 2 he only received 9 J . for ! the work which in 17 S 8 brought him in 15 s . !!! , We have shewn that while onr Foreign Trade I has b « en thus " Extending , " and causing this depreciating effect upon prices , profit ^ and wages , ! Ceime has increased from 4 , 605 committals in 1395 , j to 27 , 760 committals in 1841 . We have also shown > that while in 1798 , with as much money , or nearly so , | for our oxE-siXTB ^ catchy of Foreign Trade ; and . with 15 i . wages for weaving twelve yards of GOxeed-; € 4 thscambric , we had only £ 30 ^ 92 , 995 of taxes ; to pay ; while in 1842 , when we had depreciated our ; prices so as ' to cause us to give five times the quantity
for the same amount of money ; when wages were : so beaten down as to cause the cambric weaver to perform fifteen shillings worth of labour for nine' ¦ pence ; we have shewn that when these results had followed the enormous Extensions of our Foreign ! Commerce , " our taxes in 1842 amounted to ' £ 50 , 397 , 738 !! being £ 19 , 804 , 743 more to pay with : diminished means . We have shewn that the effect ; of all this has been to cause us to give to the tax-eater ! sis-times more than was his due ; and we have I shewn that these facts alone sufficiently accounted j for our home-position , where we hate the workers ) withont work ; the labourers without food ; and S many " wishing Almighty God to pnt an end to their ' sufferings before morning . "
All these things we have beforetime proved , from the Returns published by the House of Commons itself ; from " the facts in figures" which those Returns bo truthfully exhibit . It therefore stands I ns not in need to dwell longer on them at tho ; present . We need not stay to prove the horrible | destitution everywhere abounding . Thai is now '< admitted on every hand . Ever since the Whigs saw the bl « ak side of the Treasury benches , that fact has found trumpeters plenty i It is now undisputed . The Minister has over and over again
' admitted it . He has caased the Queen to admit ; it from the throne , deploring the fact , while she : admired and complimented the patience and fori titude with which it was borne . Our Acme-position is J therefore ncu : well understood . In that particular ] we aland much better than ever wa did formerly . , When the Whigs were in , not one wo d respecting | general distress would they hear . In 1833 , when : a Committee of Inquiry inte the condition of ' . " Manufactures , Shipping , and Commerce" had 1 been appointed , the Wcig 3 set themselves to prove that we were then in a state of " vxexampled
prosperity . " To prove this , they raked the very kennels for " evidence . " It was before that Committee that Mr . Johm Mabshali , of Leeds , evidenced that the wage he paid to a weaver was ten shillings a-week , whereon to support himself , his wife , and his family 1 It was before that Committee that Mr . John Mabshall showed that the average wage 3 he paid the "hands" in his mill was 6 b . lUd . 111 And this was all " evidence" of
" ntEXAMPLED prosperity . " Now , however , the song is changed . No one now sings of " prosperity . ' ' Tbe ousted Whip loudly proclaim national buin at home ; and the Minister admits that great destitution prevails ; and has counselled the Queen to beg throughout the whole empire for eleemosynary aid to help to keep the stprving thousands alive 1 Such , then , ib our pesition at home . What is our position abroad ?
We have been led to believe that England owes ail b-ei greatness to " onr Foreign Commerce . " We have been tanght that to "Foreign Commerce " we owe almost our very existence : at all events , to Jt , we are told , we owe onr civilization" and our empire of the seas . " We have also been taught «»* if we cannot devise means to maintain and extend" that » Foreign Commerce » we must bid farewell to our » glory , " and prepare to be aU-but blotted out of the list of powerful nations . Such is ftnTety ^ " " ***• " ° « Fore ^
see h ^ W ^ ° VeS ™ Ie ° k Wdl ab 0 Ht « . «* tot UO . £ t iT f ° re ] fin Qbb »«* stands . We couTdtS ^ 1 i- aatt € r of boast > * ™ SftLw ^^ " ^^ tures : thatnoother nation could equal U 8 fa enterprise , industry , and
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skill : that we h ? A the iron and the coal ; the labour and the ma ihinery ; the water and the climate : and that ih < ese advantages rendered our manufacturing position impregnable . True , at the time this self-glorifying ^ song of praise" was being sung » we were ' also warned of the danger to be apprehended from ** Foreign Competition . " True , that white < he Imll-frog boast of impregnability was raised , we were also told that it was of the utmeat moment to us , to be careful how we interfered with our manufactures , or we should give ** Foreign Competition" the advantage over us . True , too , that this danger from " Foreign Competition " was adduced only when we asked for a measure of
Regulation , to prevent infants , « f eight years old from being worked sixteen and eighteen hours a day , with only thirty minutes' respite from labonr , for rest , meals , recreation , and " education" ! or when our operatives shewed symptoms of resistance to a reduction in wages . True , that it was only on such occasions as these that the danger to be apprehended from Foreign Competition" was laid before us . On all other occasions a far different " song of triumph" was sung ; and we have been taught that for all we possess we are indebted to our " Commerce" and our " Manufactures "; and that therefore it was of the most vital consequence to us to main * tain our acknowledged supremacy in the markets of the world .
How , then , doeB the question of " Foreign Commerce" Stand ? How is our " supremacy" 1 Do we maintain it 3 Has it been secured to us , by our constant depreciation in prices ; onr sacrifice of profits ; and our annihilation of wages t Can we beat tho " foreign manufacturer , " now that we give him five times as much for his shilling as we did only fifty years ago , and reduced the cambric weaver fourteen SHILLINGS AND THREE-PENCE OUT OF EVERY FIFTEEN shillings that he then earned 1 Are we masters of the " foreign market , " now that we have reduced our
workmen to destitution , and increased the number of committals for crime in thirty-six years from 4 , 605 to 27 , 760 !! Are we able to " compete" with the " foreign manufacturer , " now that we have made such efforts to defeat him , and such sacrifices to maintain our supremacy ? Let these questions be answered by the Morning Chronicle , the organ of the manufacturing party , who are eternally bawling for another and greater ' * Extension" of our manufactures , as the only means of getting us out of the hobbles former " Extensions" have driven us into .
In that journal of Wednesday last there appears the following picture of our own " Commerce" and the Commerce" of other nations , whose " maikets ' we have hitherto had almost all to ourselves . It is of the utmost importance that this picture be attentively examined , both in its leading features , and in its minute details . // is a confession on the part of our Manufacturers themselves that " OCR COMmescb" has failed . ' ! It is of mighty consequence in guiding us to a correct estimation of our position abroad . Here is the confession : failure is proclaimed in every line : —
1 . England is the child of commerce . To it she owes , to a great extent , ber power and her civilization . If she possesses tbe empire of the seas , it was commerce that gave it to her ; if she "wishes to keep it , it Is by commerce alone that it can be preserved . To its active and enterprising spirit she owes alike her maritime superiority and her colonial grandeur . The plough and the harrow might have been driven fcr ages , seed sown , and harvests gathered , and yet England would still have been but an inferior power . But tbe loom and the forge are called , into requisition : onr commercial marine is freighted with their productions : articles of comfort and nec 2 « sity are scattered over overy quarter of the globs , and straightway this little island ot ours acquires a degree of importance and power , seemingly inconsistent alike with hei natural capabilities and her geographical position .
2 . At the present juncture , the aspect of our commercial relations with iorelgn powers is worthy of the most serious attention . // ue look at Europe , u < e find all the great stales of the continent erecting for themse ' vts . respectively , a manufacturing interest , which threatens to render them , ere long , completely independent of our skill and industry . Across the Atlautic . the prospect , if not equally cheerless , is at least forbidding . OCR HOLD -UPON AMERICA SEEMS DAILY IlELAX-13 G . The states ef the northern continent are lessen , ing their dependence upon us , by extending their
manufactures , and hampering our trade by increasing prohibitions ; -whilst our fast waning treaty with Brazil is giving ominous warning of the precarious position in which stands our traffic with the south . On all hands have hostile tariffs arisen ; and as they are marshalled against us abroad , first idleness and then famine ot surely overtake half our population at home . The dangers which menace us on every side are increasing in a compound ratio , and yet no effort is mode to avert them . Inactivity rules the Cabinet , while distress and ruin threaten even our national c *
ulence . 3 . Every cycle of the protectire system has witnessed England in a worse position than its predecessor . Previous to 1814 the great staple articles of her manufacture had to contend with but a trifling competition . England then enjoyed an almost complete monopoly in the manufacture of cotton goods . Her woollen trade wai nearly equally unchecked . That wrs the time when English industry vras indispenBible to contineutial comfort , and when political alienations were not sufficiently powerful to sever tbe ch&io of commercial dependence , which made Europe contributory to our greatness . Hostility might proclaim the ports of the Continent ahut against our traffic ; but the Continent w&i ~ not in a condition to dispense with it . What Imperial arrogance conceived it could accomplish with a breath , was rendered impossible by the wants
and necessities of Europe . i 4 . The last twenty-five years have been no less pregnant -with commercial changes than they have been rife ; in political revolutions . Every change has placed tbe i Continent in a position more adverse to the interests of England . In proportion as Europe bas progressed , has ! England receded . We are now debarked those MARKETS FROM "WHICH , FORMERLY , NO POWER was sufficiekt to exclude us . From the Guad- i alqulver to the Neva "we » re met by an unbroken line ef hostile tariff regulations . On the Baltic , espeically , is opposition rendered formidable by extensive and increasing combination . What the Milan and Berlin DECREES "WERE UNABLE TO EFFECT IS N' . W ACCOMPLISHED 131 THE SPINNING JEXN 1 ES OF GEBJIANT . ' '
5 . The progreES of competition is alike discernible in ' the activity which everywhere marks tha industry of tbe foreigner , and the distress which brooi 8 like a nightmare over England . Oar cotton trade , though crippled and diminished , is not yet a complete wreck . * That ' great branch of human industry is now nearly equally ' divided between us tiud our tW&Ib . Amtrici , France , ^ and Germany now annually convert nearly a million of beves of the raw material into cotton fabrics ; NOT © nly SVFPLYING , TO A GREAT EXTENT , THEIR OWN , WANTS , BUT COMPETING WITH US IN OTHER MARkets , of -which formerly we had an undisputed ' , monopoly of the supply . The consumption by England j of raw cotton does not now much exceed the amount i converted into manufactured wares by the foreign '
loom . Had the general demand increased in proportion ' as foreign manufactures have flourished , the demand I upon England for her fabrics , although it might have ' remained stationary , would not have diminished . But foreign manufactures have far outstripped the increase of general demand ; and just in proportion as they have done so , have they encroached upon the trade and the industry of England . The cotton of America was at one time raised almost exclusively for our market ;' it is now extensively distributed through Europe and j New Epglsnd . Snch have been the fruits of our re- ! strictive system . That system first plantedjthe germ of universal competition—our continuance in it is fast ' bringing competition to a maturity , Vfhich will eventually overwhelm the great interests of the country . '
6 . If our cotton trade were the only sufferer , we might bear up against the calamity . An increase in tbe . other great branches of onr industry might compensate I us for the contraction of this the most important of all . Had the demand for her hardware and her woollens ' increased , 83 that for ber cotton fabrics diminished , England would not have so sensibly felt tbe diminution . In five years only , from 1833 to 1838 , her exportation of ' cottons to Germany alone exhibited an alarming de- ' crease . But this ia not all . The Custom-House confederacy of the Baltic has extended its hostility to every Important branch of our trade . Prussia , Westphalia , and Ssxony have each erected their forges , and tbe PROTECTIVE < 3 AR . E OF THEIR RESPECTIVE
GOVBRSMEKTS IS PATERNALLY EXTENDED TO THESE NEW-BORN INTERESTS The languishing stite of our hardware manufactures is the result In woollens , such was at one time our undisputed superiority , that in tbe purchase of the raw material we controlled the coutinenr-vl market . We are not only now overbidden there , but as early as 1828 the United Kingdom exported raw ¦ wool to the manufacturers of the Continent to tbe amount of nearly half a million sterling . 7 . Had our commercial relations with Ru 5 sin been
established , from the first , upon a judicious footing , it iB impossible to calculate the extent to which an interchange of commodities would have eventually been carried between that power and England . But Russia , fatally for us , aod injuriously to herself , hs ? imitated the . . restrictive system , which she regards as the source ef the prosperity of England ; whereas it is now clearly proved to have retarded her progress . Tee great power of the north—coiossd both in ber physical magnitude and in the political influence "which she aljeady -wields , and is jet destined
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to assume , has deeply . interwoven the KniLoyEOVis principles Of protection with her whole commercial code . The commerce of Russia ia built upon a system of gigantic monopolies , each , as it springs up , more or less crippling our trade witb the Baltic . With no other country in Ewvpe have our commercial relations been more steadily diminished . England , at one time , furnished Riwsia with ber cottons ; Russia now manufactures for her own necessities . First , our manufactured cottoas were prohibited , the importation of our cotton twist being still permitted and encouraged . Latterljf , the demand for this , the lait remnant of our cotton wade with that country ,
has diminished , and the Russian manufacturer is becoming completely independent of us . Perhaps in no branch of trade ia the loss of this great market more observable than in that ef broadcloth . Several large Russian booses in the City , which were formerly in tbe habit of supplying Russia extensively with goods of this description , have , year after year , become more limited in their dealings , until , during the present year , not a single order has been received . Colour after colour wai prohibited ; the English manufacturer , to evade tbe prohibition , sending over his foods to be dyed in the country . Colour after colour
has been bestowed in monopoly upon imperial favorites . Green , the most important of all , because the uniform of the army , has lately been granted exclusively to the Empress Mother . Our broad cloth manufacturers have now but little inducement to try tbe Russian market , and a bale ef Eoglish goods of this description , with the name of a respectable English house upon it , which formerly used to pass unopened , almost as currency , from St . Petersburg to Tobolsk , is now seldom to be seen In that extensive region . However friendly our political relations may continue—between ub and Russia there bids fair to be soon the next thing to a commercial non-intercourse .
There now \ There is a picture of M Foreign Competition" ! There is a picture , after the fivetimes , over increase of quantity for the same amount of money ! There is a picture , after reducing the cambric weaver from L 5 s . for weaving twelve yards of . cambric , down to 9 a . 11 There is a picture , after increasing the number of criminals from 4 , 605 to 27 , 700 ! I There is a picture , after our operatives have been reduced to such deplorable misery as to cause them to " wish that Almighty God would put an end to their sufferings before morning" ! There is a picture , to be purchased at tbe price of " distress and ruin threatening our national existence" !! Have we not paid doarly for it ? ! !
Let us examine this article somewhat in detail . For that purpose we have numbered the paragraphs . Paragraph 1 . tells us that" England owes her power and her civilization to her Commerce . " There it ib J There it is ! It runs in the blood ! It is never out of tbe mind of our " profound Political Economists . " England the child of Commerce , " !! What " Commerce" had we in the days of Alfred t Was England England then ! Not the " national extinction threatened England , from distress and ruin" ; bufc " merrie England . " Not 27 , 760-cemmittals-forcrime-England ; but England with golden bracelets erected upon poles at the crossings of the highways ;
and these untouched ! Was that the " Child of Com * merce ' ? What " Commerce" had we in the days of John , when tho Barons met him at Runnemedc , and forced him to sign Magna Chartu , or the Charter of " rights and liberties" ? What" Commerce" had we in thethird Edward ' s time , when England was " powerful" enough to " conquer" all France , excepting Paris ! What " Commerce" had we in the sixth Harry ' s time , when old Chancellor Fortesqce gave the following description of England and
Englishmen ? That description we commend to the attention of the Chronicle , and ask him to contrast it with his own description of England NOW , with " distress and ruin threatening her national existence" ! The old Chancellor says , that in the days when "" the plough and the harrow were driven , the seed sown , and harvests gathered ; " and before " the anvii and the loom had been called into requisition , " that " our commercial marine might be freighted with their productions" ; in those days old Fortesqub described the condition of England and Englishmen thus : —
" The King cannot despoil the subject , without making ample satisfaction for the same ; he cannot by himself or hia ministry , lay taxes , subsidies , or any imposition whatever , upon the subject ; he can > OT alter THE LAWS . OR MAKE SEW ONKS , WITHOUT THE EXPRESS CONSENT OF THE WHOLE KINGDOM IN PARLIAMENT ASSEMBLED : every inhabitant is at his liberty futly to use and enjoy whatever his farm prodaceth , tbe fruits of the earth , the increase of his flock , and the like : all the improvements he makes , whether by hia own preper industry , or of those he retains in bis service , are his own to use and enjoy , without the lett , interruption , or denial of any . If he be in any wise injured , he shall have his amends aud satisfaction against the party offending : HENCE it is
that the inhabitants of England are rich in gold , silver , and all the necessaries and conveniences of life . They drink no water , unless at certain times , upon a religious score , and l > y way of doing penance . They are fed in great abundance with all sorta of jiesh antt fish , ot which they have plenty everywhere ; they are clothed throughout in good woollens ; their , bedding and other furniture in their bouses are of woel , and that in great store ; they are &Ibo well provided with all sorts of household goods nnd necesssary implements for husbandry ; every one according to bis rank , hath all ( hinys which conduce to ' make life easy and happy . '" And after this he observes that these are tbe etivcts of laws , which are founded upon . the principle , that " a king is given for the sake of the kingdom , and not a kingdom for the sake of a kiny . "
Such was England , when " Commerce" was , comparatively , unknown ! Such was England , when the " plough and the harrow" received more attention than the " anvil and the hota . " Such was E . vglazvd , when : Englishmen consumed their own " productions , " instead of " freighting" them off , for distant climes . Now , the Chronicle says ; now , that " Commorco" has " civilized" us ; now , that OUR '* articles of comfort and necessity are scattered OVER EVERY QUARTER OF THE GLOBE "; UOW , that "the loom and the forge" have been so " called into requisition" ; now , after all this " Commerce" of which " England is the child" ; now , after all this , her " national existe . ncb is even thkeate . njlD By distress aad hujn" ! ! 1
Paragraphs 2 and 5 give a mournful picture of " foreign competition . " We are being regularly driven out of " foreign markets . " " All the great States ' of Europe are erecting for themselves a manufacturing interest , which threatens to render them , ere long , completely independent of our skill and industry . " And this , too , ; after we have brought ourselves to a condition , that even our " national existence is threatened , by distress aud ruin" ; brought ourselves to that condition , in the vain endeavour to maintain our " supremacy' in the " 'foreign markets" of the world I
There is one most curious idea pervading the whole article of the Manufacturers 7 Organ . It is , that the condition he describes is attributable to what he calls the " protective system . " And what " system " does he shew those other nations to have adopted , to enable them to beat us in their own markets \ The " Free system , " to be sure U O 1 no . " We are now mot by an uubrofcen line of hostile Tariffs . ' " The states of the Northern Continent of America are lessening their dependence upon us , by extending their manafaoture ? , and hampering our trade by increased prohibitions" I " Russia has deeply interwoven the principles of PROTECTION with her
whole commercial code ; and " with no other country in Europa have our comm . tr . cial relations bean more speedily dimiuiahed" !!! Pray , how is this , Mr . Chronicle ? If the " protective system" leads to dangor Of u national extinction from distress and ruin" in England , pray how is it that we have to fear those same " protictive principles" when interwoven with the commercial codes of other countries ? If those principles lead to sum at home , pray how do they manage to make " other nations independent of our skill and industry" I Pray how is this f Have you not assigned an operation to those " principles" abroad different from that which you would have us believe them to have had at home 1
Have you not been trying to make our condition Bquare with a foregone conclusion ? and have you not failed \ Haa not tho natural operation of the " protective system , ' in " excluding" us from every "foreign market " where it has been adopted , proved that PROTECTION renders others independent ? And if it has this effect in Russia , why should it have reduced us to a danger of national extinction 1 Has not it been rather the want of PROTECTION that haa brought us to where we are ? England teas protected when old Chancellor Fortesque penned his description of this then " powerful" state . She had no
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** Free-Traders" then . That genus have sprung up since that day : and every attempt to put in practice their principles of no-protection , has been followed by distress and ruin , " until at last our very " national existence is threatened" !! But we must examine still more deeply into our position abroad . The Chronicle tells as that " our hold upon America seems daily relaxing . " We are loosing it entirely ! America is not only beating us in her home markets , but she has actually followed us into our own , and beaten us there ! She has sent us manufactured cottons , and sold them in the English market " cheaper" than wo can produce them ourselves ! She has beaten us at home . In a short time we . shall be compelled to adopt a " prohibitory Tariff , " to enable our manufacturers to retain the home market !
This question is one of intense interest . The reader will therefore excuse our going into it at great length , j We wish to put him in possession of the facts relating to it , that he maybe prepared to meet the impending evil . The battle has begun . We are being beaten . We shall be ultimately driven completely out ; of every foreign market . Such is not our opinion alone . The facts narrated in the article from the Chronicle fully sustain that opinion : and if any doubt could possibly exist in the mind of any one , after examining the Chronicle's pioture , that doubt will surely be removed by the following letter , written in the month of June last , by one of the largest of our cotton manufacturers , Robert HydeJGbeg . Jn that letter he shows why the Americana can beat us . It is important therefore , and necessary for a due understanding of this mighty question .
The letter was written to the Manchester Guardian . In that jpaper had appeared a statement , an analysis , respecting the cotton goods sent from America into the English market ; showing that they were " cheaper" than tboso of like quality manufactured at home . Mr . JRobert Hyde Greg therefore undertook to show why that was so ; and why we could not help it . H ^ re is his letter : — 1 , sir > We iare much indebted to you and your friend , who hritbeen oo kind as to analyse the samples f American Cotton " Domestics , " and to give to the public what he balieves to be the comparative market value of them and similar goods of English manufacture . .
2 . The whole subject is so Interesting to the population of this district , and , indeed , almost equally so to the kingdom at [ large , that I need scarcely apologise for prolonging the discussion . 3 . I would remark , among other things , that calculations from email samples are liable to considerable error , as shown ! in No . 3 , being quoted as sold in America at 93 d . | per lb ., and other , cloth , apparently the same quality , at 10 per cent , higher ; and tbe " drills , " which jeost more than common plain cloth , being rated only iat the same price . This difference in quoted prices may arise , it i 8 true , from the different
kinds of cloth being in unequal demand ; but it equally shows that strict reliance ca nnot be placed on the prices of tbe tables , as ^ showing the true comparative- cost of the same kind of i cloth in England and America . The very circumstance of comparing in the tables the eight months' credit price of America with the cash price in Eaglaud , tends , Jn itself , to deceive a casual observer . Considering the [ high rate of interest in commercial transactions in Ainerica , this eight months' credit must add 5 to 7 . } per cent to the market price of the- American goods , and Bhould be deducted from theis quotitiens in the tables . ¦
4 . The tables also , so far as they are comparative , are founded on the presumption that the prices in both countries are yielding the same profit , or are equal at prime cost ; whereas , in reality with us , there is no profit , and a mojat extraordinary combination of circumBtances to reduce prices ; but supposing , in America , at tbe date of the quotations , there was a profit of 5 per cent , on the goods In question , this 5 per cent added to the 5 per cent , for difference of credit , makes 10 percent . ; and "the tables are turned' in a literal sense . I exclude wholly from consideration the finer goods ; for it is only where the raw material constitutes a certain per centage , that America can expect to compete with us . This , however , unfortunatel y , includes iue great UVLK . both of our goods and t / drns .
5 As a companion to your tibles , I give you a few particulars of the last new mill built at Lowell , of which I possess the minutest details , including the want's of every hand employed , in every department ; and cost of buildings , machinery , wheels , water , &c . &c . Tbe wages of the grown up women , weavers , drawers , and rovers , are , or were , ( wages have since been reduced ) Idol . 1 ) 5 oenta . weekly , excluding of board , or 3 dols . to 3 dols . 10 cents , inclusive board ; and tbe average of the men , including three overseers , 6 dels , exclusive of board ! 176 looms , in 24 dsys of Marcb , 18 * 1 , made ... ' 74 . 819 lbs cloth ;
or , 7 , 339 piecss ; or , 214 , 770 yards ; being about 50 . 84 yards per day . 6 . In tbe week ending June 19 th , the same looms averaged 52 6-10 ! h yards per day . Speed of loom , 135 picks per minute . Ditto front roller , spinning 14 ' s warp , 96 revolutions . Ditto throstle , ditto "weft , 106 ditto . ~ Time worked , 7 . 4 hours weekly , aud three holidays in the year . The cost of the ] " Drills , " at the same mill , from the cotton entering the mill till they reached tbe bands of the commission [ agent who sells , was , at the same time , — I els . els . Labour ll , 647 per yard ; or , 4 , 716 per lb .
2 . 261 6 , 758 7 , The waste made in manufacturing was , 11 43-100 ths per cent This data would give the cost of drills , the article composing the i 00 bales in Messrs . Bvring's hands , — ] Cotton—say .... 4 d . waste £ t . Cts . ( ii ; manufacturing 34 d .
8 d . or . 8 d . FOR PRIME COST OF WHAT COSTS HERE 9 | d . to 9 Ad . and leaves no profit to tlie manufacturer at this price ? J 8 . The principal advantage to the American manufacturer is , however , in the cost of the raw material ; which , in a general way , athounts to from fii . to Id . per lb . Grab am , in his pamphlet , on the impolicy of the cotton duty , gives ., as the result of three shipments of cotton imported by his own ! firm , viz
—400 bales by the Mars , 11 J per cent ; 200 „! Jane , 14 " „ : 101 „ : John Hale , 14 or 13 ^ per cent , extra cost , including 516 d . duty , beyond what the same bales ivould have cost at Boston . The price of American cotton was then 7 d . per lb . In the cheapness of moving power , the Americans have another great advantage over us ; their water power not averaging more stban £ : i 10 s . whilst here it eannot be reckoned under £ 12 10 s ; making % difference against a medium-siZ 2 d English concern of , £ 800 to £ 1 , 000 per annum . )
9 . In the cheapness of fl mr for dressing , and the diynesa of climate , the Americans have another great advantage over ua . They can dress their warps at half the expence we cm in England—a farther saving of £ 300 to £ 500 per annum . It is needless , however , to enter iuto farther dfctail ; and il refer those curious to fenow more on the subject , to tho pamphlet which I published on tbe factory question in 1836 . The statements and prophesies about the American manufactures made then , have proved only tod true . 10 . But , laying asWe all disputes about the different items of the cost of ; production in the two countries ,
the simpio fact of America exporting largely , and . increasingly ao , to neutral markets , proves , not only her power of successful competition , bufc that it is not her tariff , but cheaper production , which has excluded ua from her own markets in all the coarser fabrics . After supplying her own wdats , she sought the markets where she could meet us on equal terms , China and South America . From the former she has totally shut out all our coarser cotton fab tics , and from the latter to a great extant- We hear , indeed , that China takes nothing coarser than 66 reed cambrics ; but the fact is , that she does purchase laraely of coarser fabrics , but they are supplied solely by America .
11 . The entire export of grey and bleached cotton goods to China from (^ reat Britain , this season , amounts to only 456 , 000 pieces ; whilst America feaa sent , during same period , 420 , 000 pieces . These are of the stouter descriptions , a class of goods which have been rottiDg ia oar warehouses foe want ot a marfret , although offered at iprices less than they could be produced for . These " . ; domestics , " or at least the drills , having first beaten ours out of China , now farm a regular article in ths Calcutta and Bombay markets , although they pay ten per cent duly , on entry , whilst similar goods of English manufacture pay only three and a half per cent . :
12 . This export has gone on gradually increasing from 1823 , when it amounted to 1 , 763 packages , to 1833 , when it bad reached 13 , 207 packages . I cannot give the exports regularly since 1833 ; but in eighteen months of 1837 and 1 ^ 38 , 20 , 000 bales of these goods went to Asia ; and 16 . 000 ditto to South America ; and the amount this year , I am given to understand , far exceeds any previous one . 13 . Connected with tha same tu'ject , it may be remarked farther , that by the Colonial Bill , introduced by Mr . Labouchere in 1841 , and passed by the present Government last year ; a very low duty , I believe not more than four or five per cent ., has teen substituted in our North American and West India colonies , for the former duty on ail foreign manufactures ; and thus these
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markets have been opened to American enterprise , r believe our Canada merchants already feel this nev competition ; at least they have petitioned Parliament on the subject ; and lam informed that Mr . L ., of Boston , the shipper of the 400 bales of "drills" to Messrs . Barings , have now travellers in Canada taking orders for American cotton goods . 14 . The principal part of these fabrics are manufac . tured at Lowell , a town which , though only of & fe * years date , now consumes fifty thousand to sixty thou *
sand bales ef cotton in its mills ; and has , besides , many printing and bleaching establishments , and extenaire woollen concerns . It is situated about the same distance from Boston as Manchester from Liverpool ; and , like Manchester , is connected with its port by £ railroad and a navigable river . A natural water power of five thousand horses exists at Lowell , belonging to a company , and is let off on easy terms : The whele of this , o ? nearly so , is now appropriated ; and other falls , equp ' iu extent to that of Lowell , a little higher up the river , are now in process of appropriation .
15 . The freight of cotton to Boston may be taken n averaging one half tbe freight of the same cotton to Liverpool . Tbe looms at Lowell unquestionably turn off more cloth than any in Great Britain . The spinning machinery is not good , and very expensive ; but with this , our only advantage , we are now good-naturedly swpplying theih , having removed all checks to exporting our machinery by orders in council , and being , I am told , about to openly legalize il by Act of Parliament 16 . It ia blindness not to see that , with an open trade , America wilt supply England with tbe coarser fabrin of cotton ; aad I always combated , the assertion , that the cotton manufacturers , who renounced protection for themselves , when they demanded a free trade in corn , were , in so doing , renouncing what was of no value ta themselves .
17 . But Lowell herself begins to tremble for the fate of her coarser manufactures . " Cotton factories are also extending rapidly in various parts of the Southern States , in Virginia , North Carolina , Teneasee , and is the towns oh the Ohio ; and there can be no doubt but this country is destined , at no very remote period , to bi the great emporium of the cotton manufacture of the world , as it possesses all the necessary requisites for that purpose , viz . extensive available water power , an intelligent and enterprising population , and having within itself an abundant supply of the raw material . If the experiment of slave labour succeed in the factories , as is confidently expected , the cos . t of manufacturing tha cotton into cloth will be much less there than anywhere else ; so that it will not be surprising if , in a few years , those Southern factories should manufacture coarse
cotton goods , and sell them in the public markets at one-half the price at which they can be manufactured in England . There ate several cotton manufactories in Tenessee , worked entirely by slave labour , there not being a white man in tbe mill but the superintendent ; and , according to a . letter lately received from the superintendent of one of these factories , it appears that the blacks do their work ia every respect as well as could be expected from the whites . Cotton factories are rapidly springing up in North Carolina ; but , with two or three exceptions , they are chiefly employed only in spinning cotton yam . "—The Cotton Manufacture of the United States of America , contrasted and compared with thai of Great Britain ; to which calm aud interesting account , written by a Scotchman long conducting aa American cotton factory , I refer your readers for a great variety of important matter connected with tbe subject
18 . We cannot , in common candocr , deny THAT THE SPIN . VIA'G AND WEAVING OF COaESE GOODS BEING NO LONGER A MYSTERY , THE JUMN FACTURB OP THEM MUST FINALLY REST WITH THOSE WHO HAVE THE RAW MATERIAL , THE MOV . ING POWER , AND THE FLOUR FOR DRESSING , ON the easiest TERMS ; and , looking at the activity of the Americans , and their readiness and aptitude to avail themselves of every advantage , it cannot be denied that this manufacture must finally rest with them .
19 . It may be said the coarser fabrics are of little comparative value : contrast the labour in a pierc of lace with that in a piece of common calico . Bat the coaresr fabrics are worn by all , rich and poor , and tbe lace only by one person in a hundred . The coarser fabrics constitute probably three-fourths of our manufactures in bulk , a matter of no small consequence to a naval and commercial people ; and what will be our c » nditien when , three-fourths of the feu Ik ef our cotton manufactures have passed away to other nations ? Robert Hyde Greg .
To this plain statement of the reasons and causes why America can manufacture " cheaper" than we can ; and why " the manufacture must finally rest with them , ' it is unnecessary to add another word . AH the causes are there enumerated . "Cheap power ; " " raw material at home ; " " cheap transit , on their own rivers ; " " machinery exported to them ; " " the little advantage we had , now given up ; " " spinning and weaving now no longer a mystery : " it is impossible but that the manufacture must finally rest with them !
The thiog is being done . The very last Packet from the United States brings word how the affair is working . Read the following , from the American papers , brought to England this very week : and then say whether Mr . Robert Hyds Grkg and the Chronicle are not right fn exclaiming— " Our hold upon America is daily relaxing" : — " Generally speaking , business of all kinds is improving , except that of the importing merchants . Tlie tffect of the new American Tariff becomes more and more obvious every day . The imporis of English , French , and other manufactures have decreased WONDERFULLY . THE EXPORTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCE HAVE INCREASED .
" A inerican manufactures are increasing ; aud the balance of trade being turned to so great an extent in favocr of this country , specie is Sowing in upon us from a'l quarters . " The Amoskjag Manufacturing Company are about erecting another mill at Manchester , N . H . It is to be 400 feet in length , and will be sufficiently large to contain frem 460 to 480 looms , and 11 , 000 spindlesdouble the size of the mills now in operation at that place . The Lanvale Factory , the Washington Factory , and tbe Calico and Bleaching Works on I ones Falls , near Albany , are about being started on an extensive scale by a company of capitalists .
"< A merchant of Troy engaged in the eastern trade informs us , that be found it extremely difficult , when in Boston last week , to obtain a supply of " domestics " by the 15 th of August ; the orders already received by the manufacturers being so full as to keep them constantly at work . There have already been exported from Boston to China , the present year , 15 , 00 , 000 yards of cotton goods ; while from Great Britain to China , tha export bas only been 12 , 000 , 000 yards ; THE celestials GIVING OUR CLOTHS THE PREFERENCE . " Troy Whig . There is the process . " Protection" ruins us in England . In America it causes the " imports" of our manufactures to decrease wonderfully ; and the exports of their own produce to increase .
Well , then , such is our position abroad ! We are being driven down in the manufacturing market ! " Our hold upon America" is fast melting away . "From the Guadalquiver to the Neva , we are met by an unbroken line of hostile tariffs . " " Our fast waning treaty with Brazil gives ominous warning of the precarious position in which stands our traffic with the South . " " On the Baltic , opposition is rendered formidable by extensive and increasing
combination . " " Persia , Westphalia , and Saxony have each erected their forges ; and the protective care of their respective Governments is paternally extended to these new-born interests . The langui = hing state of our hardware manufactures ia the result . " M England at one time furnished Russia with her cottons : Russia now manufactures for her own necessities . " " The Russian manufacturer is now completely independent of u ? . "
The fact is , the manufacturing game is over ! It is done . Machinery has dona its work . It has stripped us of that which we formerly exclusively possessed—enterprise , skill , and untiring industry-These are not of much avail now . A machine caa run as well in America as in England ; in Russia afl in Saxony . All these parties have now gotten » bb machinery ; and , therefore , they are equal with us . Nay , some of them , as witness America , have advantages over us which we can never deprive them of , or counterbalance ! The game is at aa end ! It ia completely up ! If we play at it longer , it will be at a greater loss than it ever has been : and , as it is , it has threatened our National Existence !
What , then , is to be done ? What is to be our resource \ To what eud are we to apply the national energies T Aro we to go on as we are , and become " Nationally Extinct" ! Are we to permit distrxss and roin to do their full work ? Or are we to loo k the evil full in tbe face , aad apply a simple but efficacious remedy } But what is that remedy ? Next week we will shew you . Next week we will set Mr . Baines to shew you . Next week we will prove , from him , that there is but one , — " our last and only resource , — the land" ! Next week we will shew that he has long foreseen this day , and provided a remedy / That remedy is in " our own soil . "
The great length of this article precludes our doing this at the present , as we had fully intended . It will however taka no harm from keeping * The testimony of the Chronicle as to our pbesent posmoij
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7 HE NORTHERN STAR ,
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Northern Star (1837-1852), Sept. 2, 1843, page 4, in the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (2008; 2018) ncse.ac.uk/periodicals/ns/issues/vm2-ncseproduct666/page/4/
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